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CP 105 [2016 Ed.].pdf - Free download as PDF File .pdf), Text File .txt) or read online for free. (3) Compaction monitoring shall occur on all lifts of backfill. considered a Professional Work Product and shall be authenticated by a Professional. Directory Monitor Pro 2.15.0.5 Crack Free Download You may utilize the catalog screen for the reconnaissance of sure registries and it will.

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Environmental management. Classification: LCC HD30.255 .D37 2020 (print) ISBN 9781119591566 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Industrial management–Environmental aspects. LCC HD30.255 (ebook) DDC 658.4/083–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035347 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035348 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Images: Medicine abstract background © Zoezoe33/Shutterstock, Abstract plant © Viktoriya/Shutterstock Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India Printed in the United States of America 10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

To our current and future students.

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Contents About the Author   xxi Preface  xxiii Acknowledgements  xxv About the Companion Website  xxvii 1 1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.2 1.2.1 1.3 1.4 1.4.1 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.10.1 1.10.2 1.10.3 1.10.4 1.10.5 1.10.6 1.11 1.11.1 1.11.2 1.11.3 1.11.4 1.11.5 1.11.6 1.12 1.12.1 1.12.2 1.13 1.13.1

Why Industrial Environmental Management?  18 Problems  21 References  22

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2 2.1 2.1.1 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.7 2.7.1 2.8 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 2.8.9 2.8.10 2.8.11 2.9 2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5 2.9.6 2.9.7 2.10 2.11 2.11.1 2.11.2 2.12 2.12.1 2.12.2 2.12.3 2.12.4 2.12.5 2.12.6 2.12.7



Contents

2.12.8 2.12.9 2.12.10 2.12.11 2.12.12 2.12.13 2.13 2.13.1 2.13.2 2.13.3 2.13.4 2.13.5 2.13.6 2.13.7 2.14 2.14.1 2.14.2 2.14.3 2.14.4 2.14.5 2.14.6 2.14.7 2.14.8 2.14.9 2.14.10 2.15 2.15.1 2.16 2.16.1 2.17 2.17.1



3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5

Industrial Pollution Sources, Its Characterization, Estimation, and Treatment  71 ­Introduction  71 ­Wastewater Sources  71 Point Source  71 Nonpoint Source  71 ­Wastewater Characteristics  71 Physical Characteristics  72 Total Suspended Solids  72 Color  72 Odor  72 Temperature  72 ­Chemical Characteristics  73 Inorganic Chemicals  73 Organic Chemicals  73 Volatile Organic Compounds  73 Heavy Metal Discharges  73 Some Inorganic Pollutants of Concern  74

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3.4.6 3.4.7 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.6 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 3.7.4 3.7.5 3.7.6 3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8.3 3.9 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 3.9.6 3.9.7 3.9.8 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.19.1 3.19.2 3.19.3 3.19.4 3.19.5 3.20 3.20.1 3.20.2 3.20.3 3.20.4 3.20.5 3.20.6 3.21 3.22 3.22.1

Organic Pollutants of Concern  75 Thermal Pollution  75 ­Industrial Wastewater Variation  75 Pollution Load and Concentration  75 Industrial Pretreatment  76 ­Industrial Wastestream Variables  77 Dilute Solutions  77 Concentrated Solutions  78 ­Concentration vs. Mass of the Pollution  78 Frequency of Generation and Discharge  78 Hours of Operation vs. 103 Chemical Waste  103 Electronic Waste  104 ­Hazardous Waste  104 Hazardous Wastes in the United States of America  104 Hazardous Waste Mapping Systems  105 Universal Wastes  105 Final Disposal of Hazardous Waste  105 Recycling  105 Portland Cement  105 ­Incineration, Destruction, and WtE  105 ­Hazardous Waste Landfill (Sequestering, Isolation, etc.)  106 Pyrolysis  106

Contents

3.23 3.23.1 3.23.2 3.24 3.24.1 3.25 3.25.1 3.25.2 3.25.3 3.26 3.26.1

­ adioactive Waste  106 R Sources  106 Nuclear Fuel Cycle  106 ­Coal  107 Oil and Gas  107 ­Low‐Level Waste  108 Intermediate‐Level Waste  108 High‐Level Waste  108 Transuranic Waste  108 ­Nuclear Waste Management  109 Initial Treatment  109 Problems  110 ­References  111

4



4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 4.5.5 4.5.6 4.5.7 4.5.8 4.5.9 4.5.10 4.5.11 4.5.12 4.5.13 4.6 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 4.6.7 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.8 4.8.1

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4.8.2 4.8.3 4.9 4.9.1 4.9.2 4.9.3 4.10 4.10.1 4.11 4.11.1 4.11.2 4.12 4.12.1 4.12.2 4.13 4.13.1 4.13.2 4.14 4.14.1 4.14.2 4.14.3 4.14.4 4.14.5 4.14.6 4.14.7 4.14.8 4.14.9 4.15 4.15.1 4.16 4.16.1 4.16.2 4.16.3 4.16.4 4.16.5 4.17 4.17.1 4.17.2 4.17.3 4.18 4.18.1 4.19 4.19.1 4.19.2 4.19.3 4.19.4 4.19.5 4.19.6 4.19.7 4.19.8 4.19.9 4.19.10 4.20

Streeter–Phelps Equation and DO Sag Curve in a River  141 Mixing of Wastewater in Rivers: Mass-Balance Approach  141 ­Water Quality Modeling  142 Formulations and Associated Constants  142 WWTP BOD, SS, and Fecal Coliform Removal Efficiencies: Meet Water Quality Standards  142 NPDES Wastewater Discharge Permits for Point Sources  143 ­Example NPDES Permits (for Refinery and Aluminum Smelter are shown in Section D.1)  145 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) Rule  145 ­Air Pollution Perspective  146 Causes, Sources, and Effects  146 Air Toxics: Toxic Air Pollutants  147 ­Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Permitting Process  149 Introduction  149 The PSD Program Goals  149 ­An Overall Permitting Process  150 Who Needs a PSD Permit?  151 What Does the PSD Program Require of the Applicant?  151 ­Best Available Control Technology  152 Introduction  152 Control Technology Requirement Definitions  153 BACT Selection Strategy  154 Top-Down BACT Analysis  155 Identify Technologies  155 Determine Technical Feasibility  156 Rank Technically Feasible Alternatives  156 Evaluate Impacts of Technology  156 Plant-Wide Applicability Limitation  157 ­Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling  157 Atmospheric Layers  158 ­Dispersion Models: Indoor Concentrations  159 Gaussian Dispersion Model  160 Modeling Protocol  161 Dispersion Model Selection  161 CALPUFF  162 Attainment and Non-Attainment Areas  162 ­State Implementation Plan  162 What National Standards must SIPs Meet?  162 What Is Included in a SIP?  163 Who Is Responsible for Enforcing a SIP?  163 ­Compliance  164 Compliance Requirements  164 ­CAA Enforcement Provisions  168 Administrative Penalty Orders  169 Issuing an Order Requiring Compliance or Prohibition  169 Bringing Civil Action in Court  169 Requesting the Attorney General to Bring Criminal Action  169 Emergency as a Defense  169 Section 114: Fact-Finding  170 Inspection Protocol  170 Continuous Emission Monitoring  171 QA and QC in Air Emission Rates  171 Performing Stack Tests  172 ­Industrial Solid Wastes and Its Management  173

Contents

4.20.1 4.20.2 4.20.3 4.20.4 4.20.5 4.20.6 4.20.7 4.20.8 4.20.9 4.21 4.21.1 4.22 4.22.1 4.22.2 4.23 4.23.1 4.23.2 4.23.3 4.23.4 4.23.5 4.23.6 4.23.7 4.23.8 4.24 4.24.1 4.24.2 4.24.3 4.24.4 4.24.5

Solid Waste Treatment: Some Perspectives on Recycling  173 Why Recycle?  173 What Is Recycling  173 A Brief Overview of Recycling in the United States and United Kingdom  174 Recycling Today  174 Recycling as a Route to Sustainable Productivity and Growth  175 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act  175 Few RCRA Provisions: Cradle–to-Grave Requirements  177 TSDFs Permits  178 ­Hazardous Waste Landfill (Sequestering, Isolation, etc.)  180 Final Disposal of Hazardous Waste  180 ­Industrial Waste Generation Rates  181 Generator Requirements and Responsibilities  181 Environmental Audits  181 ­Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act and Superfund  182 History  182 Provisions  182 Procedures  183 Implementation  184 Hazard Ranking System  184 Environmental Discrimination  184 Case Studies in African American Communities  184 Case Studies in Native American Communities  185 ­Industrial Waste Management in India: Shifting Gears  185 Integrated Solid Waste Management  185 Hazardous Waste Handling and Management Rule  186 Biomedical Waste Rule  186 E-Waste Rule  186 Plastic Nonhazardous Waste Rule  186 Problems  187 ­References  189

5

Assessment and Management of Health and Environmental Risks: Industrial and Manufacturing Process Safety  193 ­Health Risk Assessment  193 Air Pollution  193 Problem Formulation  194 Exposure Assessment  195 Toxicity Assessment  199 Risk Characterization  200 ­Assessing the Risks of Some Common Pollutants  201 NOx, Hydrocarbons, and VOCs: Ground‐Level Ozone  202 Carbon Monoxide  203 Lead and Mercury  204 Particulate Matter  205 SO2, NOx, and Acid Deposition  206 Air Toxics  207 ­Ecological Risk Assessment  207 Technical Aspects of Ecological Problem Formulation  208 Ecological Exposure Assessment  211 Ecological Effects Assessment  213 Additional Components of Ecological Risk Assessments  214 Tropospheric Ozone Pollution and Its Effects on Plants  215

5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5

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5.3.6 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.6 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.7 5.7.1 5.8 5.8.1 5.9 5.9.1 5.9.2 5.10 5.10.1 5.10.2 5.10.3 5.10.4 5.10.5 5.10.6 5.10.7 5.11 5.11.1 5.11.2 5.12 5.12.1 5.12.2 5.12.3 5.12.4 5.12.5 5.12.6 5.13 5.13.1 5.13.2 5.13.3 5.13.4 5.13.5 5.14 5.14.1 5.14.2 5.14.3 5.14.4 5.14.5 5.14.6



Contents

5.14.7 5.15 5.15.1 5.15.2 5.15.3 5.15.4 5.15.5 5.15.6 5.15.7 5.15.8 5.15.9 5.15.10 5.16 5.16.1 5.16.2 5.16.3 5.16.4 5.16.5 5.16.6 5.17 5.17.1 5.17.2 5.17.3 5.17.4

Radiation Protection Principles  251 ­Effects of Global Warming: Climate Change – The World’s Health  253 The Greenhouse Effect  253 Greenhouse Gases  254 Are the Effects of Global Warming Really Concerns for Our Future?  255 More Frequent and Severe Weather  255 Higher Death Rates  256 Dirtier Air  256 Higher Wildlife Extinction Rates  256 More Acidic Oceans  256 Higher Sea Levels  256 Effects of Global Warming on Humans  256 ­Key Vulnerabilities  257 Health  257 Extreme Weather Events  257 Environment  257 Temperature  257 Water  257 Social Effects of Extreme Weather  257 ­Energy Sector  258 Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas  258 Nuclear  258 Hydroelectricity  258 Transport  258 Problems  259 ­References  260

6 6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 6.3.11 6.3.12 6.3.13

Industrial Process Pollution Prevention: Life-Cycle Assesvsment to Best Available Control Technology  265 ­Industrial Waste  265 Waste as Pollution  265 Pollution Prevention in Industries  265 Defining Process Pollution Prevention (P3)  267 ­What Is Life Cycle Assessment?  267 Benefits of Conducting an LCA  268 Limitations of LCAs as Tools  268 Conducting an LCA  268 Life Cycle Inventory  271 Life Cycle Impact Assessment  273 Life Cycle Interpretation  277 ­LCA and LCI Software Tools  280 ECO-it 1.0  280 EcoManager  280 Eco Bat 2.1  280 GaBi 4  281 IDEMAT  281 EIOLCA  281 LCAD  281 LCAiT  281 REPAQ  281 SimaPro 7  282 TEAM (Tool for Environmental Analysis and Management)  282 TRACI: A Model Developed by the USEPA  282 Umberto NXT CO2  282

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6.3.14 International Organizations and Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment  282 6.4 ­Evaluating the Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Chemical-, Mechanical-, and Bio-Pulping Processes  282 6.4.1 Introduction  282 6.4.2 Application of LCA  283 6.4.3 The Pulping Processes  283 6.5 ­Evaluating the Life Cycle Environmental Performance of Two Disinfection Technologies  291 6.5.1 The Challenge  292 6.5.2 The Chlorination (Disinfection) Process  292 6.5.3 Dechlorination with Sulfur Dioxide  293 6.5.4 UV Disinfection Process  295 6.6 ­Case Study: LCA Comparisons of Electricity from Biorenewables and Fossil Fuels  299 6.6.1 Results  299 6.6.2 Sensitivity Analysis  302 6.6.3 Summary and Conclusions  302 6.7 ­Best Available Control Technology (for Environmental Remediation)  303 6.7.1 What Is “Best Available Control Technology”?  303 6.8 ­BACT: Applications to Gas Turbine Power Plants  304 6.8.1 Importance of Energy Efficiency  305 6.8.2 NOx BACT Review  306 6.8.3 CO BACT Review: Combustion Turbines and Duct Burners  309 6.8.4 BACT Evaluation for PM/PM10 Emissions  310 6.8.5 VOC Control Technologies  311 6.8.6 BACT Evaluation for SO2 and H2SO4 Emissions  311 Problems  312 ­References  312 7 7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.4 7.5 7.5.1 7.6 7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.7 7.8 7.8.1 7.8.2 7.8.3 7.8.4 7.9

Expanded Chemical Regimen for Recirculating Water Quality Management  335

Contents

7.9.1 7.9.2 7.9.3 7.9.4 7.9.5 7.10 7.10.1 7.10.2 7.10.3 7.10.4 7.10.5 7.10.6 7.10.7 7.11 7.11.1 7.11.2 7.11.3 7.11.4 7.12 7.12.1 7.13 7.13.1 7.13.2 7.13.3 7.13.4 7.13.5

Introduction  335 Key Points  336 The World’s First Zero Effluent Pulp Mill at Meadow Lake: The Closed-Loop Concept  337 Successful Implementation of a Zero Discharge Program  339 Conclusions  340 ­Consequences of Dirty Air: Costs–Benefits  340 Public Health  341 Visibility  341 Ecosystems  341 Economic Consequences  341 Global Climate Change  341 Quality of Life  341 Costs–Benefits Analysis  341 ­Some On-Going Pollution Prevention Technologies  341 Economic Performance Indicators  343 Estimates of Environmental Costs  343 Total Annualized Cost for BACT  345 Cost Per Ton (T) of Pollutant Removal  345 ­Cost Indices and Estimating Cost of Equipment  348 Equipment Costs  348 ­Waste-to-Energy  350 Methods  350 Other Technologies  350 Global Developments  351 Examples of WtE Plants  351 Case Study: Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste: Profitable Pollution Prevention at the City of Spokane, Washington (see Appendix G)  352 7.14 ­Sustainable Economy and the Earth  354 7.14.1 What Is a Sustainable Economy?  354 7.14.2 Costs of Manufacturing Various Biobased Products and Energy  355 Problems  357 ­References  359 8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.6 8.2.7 8.2.8 8.3 8.3.1 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.5 8.5.1

Lean Manufacturing: Zero Defect and Zero Effect: Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing  363 ­Introduction  363 ­Engineering Data Summary and Presentation  364 Sample Mean  364 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram  365 Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf Display  366 Application  366 Histogram  366 Pareto Diagram  367 Boxplots  368 Statistical Tools for Experimental Design: Process and Product Development  369 ­Time Series: Process over Time  369 Basic Principles  370 ­Process Capability  371 Statistical Process Control  372 Control Charts for Variables  372 PC Analysis  374 ­Lean Manufacturing  374 Overview  375

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8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.8.1 8.8.2 8.8.3 8.8.4 8.8.5 8.8.6 8.8.7 8.8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.11.1 8.11.2 8.11.3 8.11.4 8.12 8.12.1 8.12.2 8.12.3 8.13 8.13.1 8.14 8.14.1 8.15 8.16 8.16.1 8.16.2 8.16.3 8.16.4 8.16.5 8.16.6 8.16.7 8.16.8 8.16.9 8.16.10 8.16.11 8.16.12 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.20.1 8.20.2 8.20.3

History: Pre-Twentieth Century  376 Toyota Develops TPS  379 Tata Group  379 ­Types of Waste  380 ­Six Sigma in Industry  381 ­Lean Implementation Develops from TPS  381 Lean Leadership  381 Differences from TPS  382 Lean Services  383 Goal and Strategy  383 Examples: Lean Strategy in the Global Supply Chain and Its Crisis  383 Steps to Achieve Lean Systems  384 Measure  384 Implementation Dilemma  385 ­Manufacturing System Characteristics: Process Planning Basics  385 ­Design for Life Cycle  386 ­Sustainable Design and Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing  387 Technologies for Sustainable Manufacturing  387 Green Manufacturing Pipeline  387 Sustainable Manufacturing: Is Green Equivalent to Sustainable?  388 Manufacturing Technology Wedges  389 ­Lean Six Sigma  390 Introduction  390 The History of Six Sigma: 1980s–2000s  390 5S  392 ­Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing  392 Comparing the Two Methodologies  392 ­Cost vs. Quality Analysis  393 Considerations  395 ­Assessing and Reducing Risk in Design: Cost to Manufacturer  395 ­The Heart and Soul of the Toyota Way: Lean Processes  396 Fourteen Principles of the Toyota Way  396 Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)  397 Cost of Quality: Poor vs. Good Quality  397 Cost of Quality: Not Only Failure Cost  397 COPQ: Internal Failure Costs  398 COPQ: External Failure Costs  398 Cost of Good Quality: Prevention Costs  398 Cost of Good Quality: Appraisal Costs  398 The Six Sigma Philosophy of Cost of Quality  398 Energy-Efficiency Plan for Lean Manufacturing  399 Become ISO 50001 Ready  400 A Ten-Step Outline for Energy Analysis: Understand the Energy Used to Transform Raw Material into Finished Product to Enhance Energy Efficiency (Stowe 2018)  400 ­Essential Roles of Industrial Environmental Managers  400 ­Goals of IEMs  401 ­Environmental Compliance and Compliance Assurances  401 ­Waste Reduction  401 Reuse and Recycling Processes  402 Benefits of Waste Minimization  402 Key Features: Industrial Environmental Management Process  402 Problems  403 ­References  405

Contents

9 9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 9.2.5 9.2.6 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.4 9.4 9.4.1 9.5 9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 9.6 9.6.1 9.7 9.7.1 9.7.2 9.8 9.8.1 9.8.2 9.8.3 9.8.4 9.8.5 9.8.6 9.8.7 9.8.8 9.8.9 9.8.10 9.8.11 9.8.12 9.8.13 9.8.14 9.8.15 9.9 9.9.1

Industrial Waste Minimization Methodology: Industrial Ecology, Eco-Industrial Park and Manufacturing Process Intensification and Integration  409 ­Introduction  409 ­Industrial Ecology  409 What Is EIP?  410 EIP Development  412 EIPs – The Ebara Process: Mini Case Study 9.1 in Japan  412 Mini-Case Study 9.2: Seshasayee Paper and Board Ltd. in India  414 Mini-Case Study 9.3: Materials and Energy Flow in an EIP in North Texas, USA  415 Mini-Case Study 9.4: EIP Including Numerous Symbiotic Factories for Manufacturing Very Large Scale Photovoltaic System  415 ­Water–Energy Nexus  417 Technology Roadmaps and R&D  420 Circular Economy  421 Rethink the Business Model  424 Biomimicry  425 ­CE Indicators in Relation to Eco-Innovation  426 Development of the Concept of the CE  426 ­Process Intensification and Integration Potential in Manufacturing  427 What Is PI?  427 Case Study 9.5: Elimination of Dioxin and Furans by Alternative Chemical PI  428 Mini-Case Study 9.

10 Quality Industrial Environmental Management: Sustainable Engineering in Manufacturing  453 10.1 ­Introduction: Industry and the Global Environmental Issues  453 10.1.1 Industry Role and Trends  453

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10.1.2 10.1.3 10.1.4 10.1.5 10.1.6 10.1.7 10.1.8 10.1.9 10.1.10 10.1.11 10.1.12 10.1.13 10.1.14 10.1.15 10.2 10.3 10.3.1 10.4 10.4.1 10.5 10.5.1 10.5.2 10.5.3 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.9.1 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.13.1 10.13.2 10.14 10.14.1 10.14.2 10.14.3

Code of Ethics for Engineers  454 Sustainable Engineering Design Principles  455 Design for Environmental Practices  459 Why Do Firms Want to Design for the Environment?  460 How Does a Business Design for the Environment? 

Conversion Factors  481 International Environmental Law  483 Air Pollutant Emission Factors: Stationary Point and Area Sources  487 Frequently Asked Questions and Answers: Water Quality Model, Dispersion Model and Permits  493 Industrial Hygiene Outlines  511 Environmental Cost-Benefit  513 Resource Recovery: Waste-To-Energy Facility, City of Spokane, Washington, USA  515 The Hannover Principles  519 Environmental Goals and Business Goals Are Not Two Distinct Goal Sets  521 Sample Codes of Ethics and Guidelines  523

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­About the Author Tapas K. Das, PhD, PE, BCEE, is a chemical and environmental engineer; a Fellow member of the American Institute of Engineers; Past Chair of the AIChE’s Environmental Division; former Chair of the Air Pollution Control Committee of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Board of Trustee with the Academy; American Academy Who’s Who in Environmental Engineering from 2002 to the present; former environmental engineer at the Washington Department of Ecology; as an adjunct faculty member, Dr. Das has been teaching several undergraduate and graduate courses in Civil, Environmental, and Mechanical Engineering programs at Saint Martin’s University School of Engineering, Washington; formerly assistant professor in the College of Natural Resources and Paper Science and Engineering at the University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point; and recipient of the Professor S. K. Sharma Medal and CHEMCON

Distinguished Speaker Award for 2007 given by the Development Organization for Sustainable Transformation (DOST), Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers. Dr. Das holds a BS in Chemical Engineering from Jadavpur University in Kolkata, India, and PhD from Bradford University, Bradford, England. Dr. Das was a postdoctoral fellow at London’s Imperial College of Science, Technology, and Medicine and a visiting scientist at Princeton University. He has wide practical and theoretical experience in various areas, including air toxics and aerosols, industrial wastewater treatment for water reuse, solid waste management and combustion, profitable process pollution prevention, reuse, recycle, redesign, sustainable engineering, and sustainability. Dr. Das is a registered professional engineer in the state of Washington. Dr. Das is the author of the book Toward Zero Discharge: Innovative Methodology and Technologies for Process Pollution Prevention (Wiley, 2005).

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Preface Recently, I taught a similar course titled “Industrial Environmental Management” to senior engineering ­students and found out that there isn’t a single textbook available to cover the depth and breadth of this subject matter. That alone motivated me to write this textbook with real‐world examples, challenging problems, and solutions provided for each chapter. Tomorrow’s and today’s sustainable products and processes require engineers to carefully consider environmental, economic, social factors, while using sustainable feedstocks, renewable energy, water, chemicals, and materials in creating their design. Some quantitative tools for incorporating sustainability concepts into engineering designs and performing metrics are highlighted in the text; sustainable engineering and its principles introduce these tools and show how to apply them in lean manufacturing. In general, engineers and managers working in manufacturing industries find valuable and up‐to‐date information about lean manufacturing, Six Sigma, workers’ health and safety issues and environmental regulations, monitoring, reporting, and compliance. Also, consulting engineers will find useful information about sustainable design principles and methodology, plus best

available control technologies for environmental remediation in cost‐effective ways. This book is dedicated to undergraduate and graduate students. This book is designed to be a textbook that is prepared primarily for junior‐level and senior‐level students in multidisciplinary engineering fields including, but not limited to, aerospace, chemical, civil, environmental, industrial and manufacturing, materials science and engineering, mechanical, paper science and engineering, petroleum engineering, and business management. The subject matters covered in this textbook will be suitable for offering a course in multiple engineering disciplines within colleges and schools of engineering programs. This book has 10 chapters. I have written the text for Chapters 1 through 8 for students in clear and simple language. Theories, real‐world problems, and applications are embedded throughout these first eight chapters so that students can check their understanding before continuing on to new sections. Chapters 9 and 10 are more suitable for a graduate‐level course in sustainable engineering, sustainable manufacturing, or related topics. 4 June 2019

Tapas K. Das Olympia, WA, USA

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Acknowledgments This book publication wouldn’t have been successful without the helping hands of many individuals. I would like to thank John Berg, Clint Bowman, Jae Chung, Meghasree Dey, Dibyendu Narayan Ghosh, Linn Hergert, Clint Lamoreaux, Joseph Mailhot, Robert Peters, Katherine Porter, Selma Thagard, Sandra Tully, and staff members at the Timberland Regional Library in the City of Lacey, Washington, who helped to prepare the manuscript, proofread the text, provided reference materials, figures, graphics for the book, and made the book more readable for students. Also,

I  want to acknowledge my teachers, professors, and my classmates in India, my doctoral and postdoctoral advisors, mentors, and colleagues in England and United States for their encouragement, noble efforts, dedication and integrity to their professions, and exemplary lifestyle. Finally, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Bob Esposito, Associate Publisher at Wiley for accepting the idea of this textbook; Beryl Mesiadhas, Senior Project Editor; Devi Ignasi, Production Editor; Michael Leventhal; and the entire editorial and publishing team at Wiley.

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About the Companion Website This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/Das/IEM_1e

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1 Why Industrial Environmental Management? 1.1 ­Introduction This introductory chapter addresses why industrial environmental management is important! Environmental management is a very crucial part of human well‐being that needs to be deeply considered. Formulated design seeks to steer the development process to take advantage of opportunities, avoid hazards, mitigate problems, and prepare people for unavoidable difficulties by improving adaptability and resilience. It is a process concerned with human–environment interactions, and seeks to identify: what is environmentally desirable; what are physical, economic, social, and technological constraints to achieving that process; and what are the most feasible options. Actually there can be no concise universal definition of environmental management; however, it can be briefly summarized as supporting sustainable development; demanding multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary or even holistic approaches; it should integrate and reconcile different development viewpoints, co‐ordinate science, engineering, technology, social, policy making and planning; state proactive processes; timescales and concerns ranging from local to global issues; and one stresses stewardship rather than exploitation while dealing with a world affected by humans. In other perspectives, environmental management can be explained as methods of ways when dealing with issues due to the importance of the need to improve environmental stewardship by integrating ecology, policy making, planning, and social development. The goals include sustaining and (if possible) improving existing resources; ­preventing and overcoming environmental problems; establishing limits; founding and nurturing institutions that effectively support environmental research, monitoring and management resources; warning of threats and identifying positive change opportunities; (where possible)

improving quality of life; and finally, identifying new ­technology or policies that are useful. And moreover, actually environmental management may be subdivided into a number of fields, including the following: ●● ●● ●●

●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

Environmental economics Sustainable development issues Environmental assessment, modeling, forecasting, and “hand‐casting” Corporate environmental management activities Pollution recognition and control Environmental enforcement and legislation Environmental and development institutions and ethics Environmental management systems and quality issues Environmental planning and management Assessment of stakeholders involved in environmental management Environmental perceptions and education Community participation Natural resources management Environmental rehabilitation Environmental politics Environment aid and institution building

Generally, the environmental managers must ensure there is optimum balance between environmental protection and allowing human liberty. Then, the question is “how it can be done?” Basically, there are several steps in environmental management implementation. First, we need to identify goals and define problems, then determine appropriate actions, which will be continued as draw‐up plan. Next, implement the plan, which will be followed by ongoing development management. After that monitor and evaluate the situation. If there are adjustments needed, do it. Then finally when the exact model and standards of environmental management are generated, continuous development will be conducted.

Industrial Environmental Management: Engineering, Science, and Policy, First Edition. Tapas K. Das. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Das/IEM_1e

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The overall objective of environmental management is improved human life quality. It involves the mobilization of resources and the use of government to administer the use of both natural and economic goods and services. It is based on the principles of ecology. It uses systems ­analysis and conflict resolution to distribute the costs and benefits of development activities throughout the affected populations and seeks to protect the activities of development from natural hazards. Conflict identification is one of the most important tasks in environmental management planning and the resolution of conflicts is  a  fundamental part of what makes up “environmentally sound development. ISO (International Organization for  Standardization) 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental management that exists to help organizations (i) minimize how their operations (processes, etc.) negatively affect the environment (i.e. cause adverse changes to air, water, or land); (ii) comply with applicable laws, regulations, and other environmentally oriented requirements; and (iii) continually improve in the above.

1.1.1  ISO in Brief ISO is the International Organization for Standardization. It has a membership of 160 national standards institutes from countries large and small, industrialized, developing and in transition, in all regions of the world. ISO’s portfolio of more than 18 000 standards provides practical tools for all 3 dimensions of sustainable development: economic, environment, and societal. ISO standards for business, government, and society as a whole make a positive contribution to the world we live in. They ensure vital features such as quality, ­ecology, safety, economy, reliability, compatibility, interoperability, conformity, efficiency, and effectiveness. They facilitate trade, spread knowledge, and share technological advances and good management practice. ISO develops only those standards that are required by the market. This work is carried out by experts on loan from the industrial, technical, and business sectors which subsequently put them to use. These experts may be joined by others with relevant knowledge, such as representatives of governmental agencies, testing laboratories, consumer association and academia, and by nongovernmental or other stakeholder organizations that have a specific interest in the issues addressed in the standards. Published under the designation of International Standards, ISO standards represent an international consensus on the state of the art in the technology or good practice concerned.

1.1.2  ISO and the Environment ISO has a multifaceted approach to meeting the needs of all stakeholders from business, industry, governmental authorities, and nongovernmental organizations, as well as consumers, in the field of the environment. 1) ISO develops standards that help organizations to take a proactive approach to managing environmental issues: the ISO 14000 family of environmental management standards can be implemented in any type of organization in either public or private sectors – from companies to administrations to public utilities. 2) ISO helps to meet the challenge of climate change with standards for greenhouse gas accounting, verification and emissions trading, and for measuring the carbon footprint of products. 3) ISO develops standard documents to facilitate the fusion of business and environmental goals by encouraging the inclusion of environmental aspects in product design. 4) ISO offers a wide‐ranging portfolio of standards for sampling and test methods to deal with specific environmental challenges. It has developed some 570 International Standards for the monitoring of such aspects as the quality of air, water and the soil, as well as noise, radiation, and for controlling the transport of dangerous goods. They also serve in a number of countries as the technical basis for environmental regulations.

1.1.3  Benefits ISO 14001 was developed primarily to assist companies with a framework for better management control that can result in reducing their environmental impacts. In addition to improvements in performance, organizations can reap a number of economic benefits, including higher conformance with legislative and regulatory requirements (Sheldon 1997) by adopting the ISO standard. By minimizing the risk of regulatory and environmental liability fines and improving an organization’s efficiency (Delmas 2009), benefits can include a reduction in waste, consumption of resources, and operating costs. Secondly, as an internationally recognized standard, businesses operating in ­multiple locations across the globe can leverage their conformance to ISO 14001, eliminating the need for multiple registrations or certifications (Hutchens 2010). Thirdly, there has been a push in the last decade by consumers for companies to adopt better internal controls, making the incorporation of ISO 14001 a smart approach for the long‐ term viability of businesses. This can provide them with a competitive advantage against companies that do not

1.2  ­Environmental

adopt the standard (Potoski and Prakash 2005). This in turn can have a positive impact on a company’s asset value (Van der Veldt 1997). It can lead to improved public perceptions of the business, placing them in a better position to operate in the international marketplace (Potoski and Prakash 2005; Sheldon 1997). The use of ISO 14001 can demonstrate an innovative and forward‐thinking approach to customers and prospective employees. It can increase a business’s access to new customers and business partners. In some markets it can potentially reduce public liability insurance costs. It can serve to reduce trade barriers between registered businesses (Van der Veldt 1997). There is growing interest in including certification to ISO 14001 in tenders for public–private partnerships for infrastructure renewal. Evidence of value in terms of environmental quality and benefit to the taxpayer has been shown in highway projects in Canada. ISO 14001 addresses not only the environmental aspects of an organization’s processes but also those of its products and services. Therefore, ISO/TC 207 has developed additional tools to assist in addressing such aspects. Life‐cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool for identifying and evaluating the environmental aspects of products and services from the “cradle to the grave”: from the extraction of resource inputs to the eventual disposal of the product or its waste. The ISO 14040 standards give guidelines on the principles and conduct of LCA studies that provide an organization with information on how to reduce the overall environmental impact of its products and services. ISO 14064 parts 1, 2, and 3 are international greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting and verification standards which provide a set of clear and verifiable requirements to support organizations and proponents of GHG emission reduction projects.

1.2 ­Environmental Management in Industries Today many industries and companies have recognized the importance of proper environmental management and have switched over from traditional end‐of‐pipe solutions to the integration of environment management in overall management process of the industry. A few major driving forces for such changes are stringent legislation; demand for better work environment for employees; customers’ demands; company’s image; the growing pressure from all stakeholders regarding the environmental, economical, and social responsibilities. Environmental considerations are no longer regarded on ad‐hoc basis, rather these considerations form the part of industries’ everyday reality. Still, there is a lack of holistic approach

Management in Industrie

where environment management is a natural part of overall management system. While the environmental departments are busy with generating reports and petitions for external purposes, the top management is not making use of the competence already present within the organization. The main objective is to focus on the application of various environmental tools and methods so that there could be a shift from reactive regulatory approach to proactive environmental decision making; there could be full support of top management on the environmental information system; and the environmental issues could be prioritized and the implementation could be accelerated. Ultimately, the integration of the environmental responsibility with the environmental systems and allocation of the resources needed shall lead to implementation of the environmental strategies and it can contribute to both improvements in the environmental performance and in increasing long‐term profitability of the industry.

1.2.1  Environmental Challenges Our avid interest in environmental sustainability and environmental management issues can be traced directly to awareness that as the world’s population continues to expand and to consume natural resources, humanity faces shortages that threaten quality of life in developed areas and elsewhere on the Earth, life itself. In attempts to find solutions to these problems, we have created an ever growing inventory of manufactured goods, chemicals, drugs, ostensibly to improve the quality of life that has in fact contributed to the pollution of our environment. “Pollution prevention,” an environmental buzz word since the 1990s, encompasses designing processes that generate no waste to plants that emit only harmless compounds such as pure water. Zero defect and zero effect (ZDZE) is different from pollution prevention in that it converts raw materials into useful products or valuable resources that have “no defect” in manufactured products and “zero effect” has no adverse effect on health and environment. In this book, the meanings of “Zero Effect,” “Zero Discharge,” or “Zero Emissions” are complimentary and all terms are used interchangeably (Das 2005). Within the ZDZE paradigm the goal of resource extraction, refining, or commodity production is approached in much the same way that the mining, iron and steel, pulp and paper, petroleum, energy, automobiles, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, fertilizer, agricultural, and chemical industries go about processing raw materials. Sometimes the conversion of wastes or by‐products into resources having value to another industry is more efficient than the implementation of pollution prevention ­techniques – that is industrial ecology (also see Chapter 9).

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In this book, we will focus on the best management practices, best available industrial manufacturing processes, techniques, and technologies that treat raw materials into no‐defect products, as well as innovative and emerging processes that have best potential for achieving the highest standards in pollution prevention at the plant and industry levels, leading to no defect and zero effect (NDZE) – a common goal toward industrial environmental management. To move toward NDZE via process pollution prevention (P3) and profitable pollution prevention (P3), industries must use processes that deploy materials and energy efficiently enough to neutralize and control contaminants in the waste stream. The ultimate goal is to remove pollutants from the waste streams and convert them into products or feeds for other processes. Logically then, P3 refers to industrial manufacturing processes by which materials and energy are efficiently utilized to achieve the end product(s) that have “no defect,” while reducing or eliminating the creation of pollutants or waste at the source that is “zero discharge or zero effect.” The primary goal is to educate the engineering students to prepare them as current and future generation engineers who will learn and practice sustainable engineering and who will be our champion stewards in industrial environmental management as needed caretakers of the Earth.

1.3  ­Waste as Pollution

Minimize generation Minimize introduction Segregate and reuse Recycle Recover energy value in waste Treat for discharge Safe disposal

Figure 1.1  Pollution prevention hierarchy.

generation and minimize introduction. The USEPA describes the seven‐level hierarchy of Figure 1.1 as “environment management options.” The European Community, on the other hand, includes the entire hierarchy in its definition of pollution prevention. The tiers in the pollution prevention hierarchy are broadly described as follows. ●●

●●

A waste is defined as an unwanted by‐product or damaged, defective, or superfluous material of a manufacturing process. Most often, in its current state, it has or is perceived to have no value. It may or may not be harmful or toxic if released to the environment. Pollution is any release of waste to environment (i.e. any routine or accidental emission, effluent, spill, discharge, or disposal to the air, land, or water) that contaminates or degrades the environment. ●●

1.4  ­Defining Pollution Prevention In this book, we define pollution prevention fairly broadly as any action that prevents the release of harmful materials to the environment. This definition manifests itself in the form of a pollution prevention hierarchy, with safe disposal forms at the base of the pyramid and minimizing the generation of waste at the source at the peak (Figure 1.1). In contrast, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1992) definition of pollution prevention recognizes only source reduction and conservation, which encompasses only the upper two tiers in the hierarchy – minimize

●●

Minimize generation: Reduce to a minimum the formation of nonsalable by‐products in chemical reaction steps and waste constituents (such as tars, fines, etc.) in all chemical and physical separation steps. Minimize introduction: Cut down as much as possible on the amounts of process materials that pass through the system unreacted or are transformed to make waste. This implies minimizing the introduction of materials that are not essential ingredients in making the final product. For examples, plant designers can decide not to use water as a solvent when one of the reactants, intermediates, or products could serve the same function, or they can add air as an oxygen source, heat sink, diluent, or conveying gas instead of large volumes of nitrogen. Segregate and reuse: Avoid combining waste streams together with no consideration to the impact on toxicity or the cost of treatment. It may make sense to segregate a low‐volume, high‐toxicity wastewater stream from high‐ volume, low‐toxicity wastewater streams. Examine each waste stream at the source and identify any that might be reused in the process or transformed or reclassified as valuable coproducts. Recycle: Many manufacturing facilities, especially chemical plants, have internal recycle streams that are considered part of the process. In addition, however, it is necessary to recycle externally such materials as ­polyester film and bottles, Tyvek envelopes, paper, and spent solvents.

1.6 ­Zero Discharge Industrie ●●

●●

●●

Recover energy value in waste: As a last resort, spent organic liquids, gaseous streams containing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and hydrogen gas can be burned for their fuel value. Often the value of energy and resources required to make the original compounds is much greater than that which can be recovered by burning the waste streams for their fuel value (also see Appendix G). Treat for discharge: Before any waste stream is discharged to the environment, measures should be taken to lower its toxicity, turbidity, global warming potential, pathogen content, and so on. Examples include, but not limited to, biological wastewater treatment, carbon adsorption, filtration, and chemical oxidation. Safe disposal: Render waste streams completely harmless so that they do not adversely impact the environment. In this book, we define this as total conversion of waste constituents to carbon dioxide, water, and nontoxic minerals. An example would be posttreatment of a wastewater treatment plant effluent in a private wetland. So‐called secure landfills do not fall within this category unless the waste is totally encapsulated in granite.

1.4.1  Resource Efficiency Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth, and development cannot be sustained with the current manufacturing, production, and consumption patterns. Globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use and disposal. This process of resource efficiency can address sustainability (see Chapter 10). In this book, we will focus on the upper three options of the industrial pollution prevention hierarchy; that is, recovering the energy value in waste, treating for discharge, and arranging for safe disposal. To improve this bottom line, however, businesses should address the upper three tiers first: that is minimize generation, minimize introduction, and segregate and reuse. This is where the real opportunity exists for reducing the volume of wastes to be treated. The volume of the waste stream, in turn, has a strong influence on treatment cost and applicability. Thus, useful technologies such as membrane processes in highly flexible separation techniques for water, solvent and solute recovery, or condensation of VOCs from air are not economic at large volumetric flow rates. The focus has shifted from end‐of‐the‐pipe solutions to more fundamental structural changes in industrial manufacturing processes.

1.5 ­The ZDZE Paradigm No defect and zero effect, or something very close to it, is the ultimate goal of P3, while the processes themselves are the tools and pathways to achieve it. Thus, industries were to be reorganized into “clusters” in which the wastes or by‐ products of each industrial process’ were fully matched with others industries’ input requirements; the integrated process would produce only clean product, perfectly matching with given specifications, while no waste of any kind. As described in Chapter 8 Section 1.5, this solution is being applied in scattered areas throughout the world, from modern industrial nations such as Sweden to developing countries such as Bangladesh. Traditionally, pollution control technology processed a “waste” until it was benign enough for discharge into the environment. This was achieved through dilution, destruction, separation, or concentration. Within the ZDZE paradigm, many of these processes will still be applied, but as mentioned earlier, the goal will be resource extraction, refining, or commodity production, not simply removal of waste from the premises. Engineering firms will need to develop conversion technologies that create “designer wastes” to meet input specifications of other industries.

1.6 ­Zero Discharge Industries While there are several practical definitions of zero effect or zero discharge (ZD) manufacturing, a ZD system is most commonly understood to be one that discharges no waste from a processing and manufacturing site. In such a manufacturing facility (see Figure  1.2) an absolute minimum amount of waste, “ideally zero,” is generated and leaves the plant. The only inputs to the facility are the raw materials needed to make salable products and energy. The only outputs are salable products and any by‐products as feedstocks to another plant. The wastes (in air, water, or as solid) or by‐products generated during manufacturing process are recovered using various technologies (Das 2005). The materials and energy recovered from waste streams either are reused in the plant or are sold to another plant as feedstock. It is in practice, as well as in theory, possible to isolate some industrial facilities almost completely from the environment by recycling all wastes into materials that can then be manufactured into consumer products. An example of such a facility is a coal‐fired power plant. An electron beam–ammonia conversion unit adds ammonia to the effluent gases, which it then irradiates electronically, producing ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate that are sold as feedstock to fertilizer manufacturing. The details are given in Section 9.2.3.

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Raw materials

Manufacturing plant

Products

Energy By-products and energy recovery and reuse or use as feedstocks to other industry

Figure 1.2  “Zero” waste manufacturing facility.

The concept of Zero Emissions was inspired by the business programs of zero defects (total quality management), zero inventory (just‐in‐time), and zero accidents (workplace safety), and while its driver is improved business performance, the environmental benefits are also significant. The basic premise of Zero Emissions is converting wastes from one industry to the material input of another industry. The application and development of Zero Emissions systems will be the purview of industry, specifically manufacturers and consulting engineering firms. To a degree, the move toward Zero Emissions is already happening with pollution prevention, waste minimization, and design for the environment. While these systems require further improvement, industries employing them have seen the benefits already. But it is important to understand that some manufacturing processes inherently produce wastes, even after all reasonable efforts at pollution prevention. Thus, in some cases the use of a conversion technology may be more appropriate than a program of pollution prevention: many industrial wastes can be processed to render them viable as material inputs to another industry or to part of an industrial cluster of several connected industries.

1.7 ­Sustainability, Industrial Ecology, and Zero Discharge (Emissions) The concept of Zero Discharge or Zero Emissions is the key to sustainable development but is by itself a subset of industrial ecology (also see Section 9.2) (see Figure 1.3). Sustainability can be defined as follows: “Sustainable development” is the challenge of meeting human needs for natural resources, industrial products, energy, food, transportation, shelter, and effective waste management while conserving and protecting environmental quality and the natural resource base essential for future development; and “the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987). Sustainability is a worthy vision, but inherently ambiguous, and inescapably expressed in value‐laden terms subject to differing ideological interpretations. Accordingly, while the concept provides a useful direction, it is almost impossible to put into operation. Standing alone, it can guide neither technology development nor policy formulation. Industrial ecology is “an approach to the design of industrial products and processes that evaluated these activities through the dual perspectives of product competitiveness and environmental interactions.” The field has been developed, largely academically, over the last 10 years to be “the means by which humanity can deliberately and rationally approach and maintain a desirable carrying capacity” (Graedel and Allenby 1995). It can be thought of as the science of sustainability for industrial systems – the multidisciplinary study of industrial and economic systems and their linkages with fundamental natural systems (also see Section 9.2). Even though it is still under development, industrial ecology can provide the theoretical scientific basis upon which understanding, and reasoned improvement, of current practices can be based. It incorporates, among other things, research involving energy supply and use, new materials, new technologies, basic sciences, economics, law, management, and social sciences. It encompasses concurrent engineering, design for the environment (DFE), dematerialization, pollution prevention, waste conversion, waste exchange, waste minimization, and recycling, with Zero Emissions as an important subset. Industrial ecology can be a policy tool, but it is neither a policy nor a planning system. The goal of Zero Emissions is to restructure manufacturing so that there are no wastes. “Zero emissions” is thus applied “industrial ecology” at the manufacturing/service level, and indeed the terms are often used interchangeably. Note that the emphasis is on the manufacturing level, and not firm or industry level: whereas both “firm” and

1.7  ­Sustainability, Industrial Ecology, and Zero Discharge (Emissions Industrial ecology

Design for environment

Business application

Strategy • Strategic options • Policy

Analytical tools

Technical opportunity

Technology applications

Data inputs

• Beyond lifecycle analysis

• Ecosystem status • Industrial irregularities • Dematerialization • Industrial metabolism • Energy systems • Zero discharge

Figure 1.3  Zero discharge (emissions) is a subset of industrial ecology (see Section 9.2). Design for the environment and dematerialization are discussed later in the chapter. Industrial metabolism compromises the energy and value-yielding process essential to economic development.

Technology applications

• Dematerialization • Industrial metabolism • Energy systems • Zero discharge

Pollution prevention

Waste minimization

Conversion technologies

Waste exchange

Separation

Refinement

Extraction

Concentration

Figure 1.4  Zero discharge is supported by an array of tools and methodologies.

“industry” imply singular facilities or sectors, wastes are converted most successfully when several facilities are linked in an industrial cluster. As can be seen in Figure 1.4, pollution prevention and waste minimization are part of Zero Emissions and are technologies to be explored and where possible, optimized. Since it is not always feasible to

prevent the generation of wastes early in the industrial cycle, the practice has arisen of trading them after they have been generated. Thus, critical components of ZD are waste exchange and the conversion of wastes so that they are viable inputs in other sectors. This interaction of systems widens the focus of the waste management effort.

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1.8 ­Why Zero Discharge Is Critical to Sustainability To understand why Zero Discharge is a critical component of sustainability, it is important to recognize that one principle of sustainability is the efficient and wise use of resources, especially with regard to limiting the amount and type of resource extraction and subsequent pollution loadings. To see how these are related, it may help to think of a cycle with three parts: sources, systems, and sinks. ●●

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The sources include raw materials such as minerals, water, topsoil, and fossil fuels. On this planet, these are limited but have huge external reserves. The systems are our ability to manipulate energy to turn source materials into finished products. Economic and industrial systems are limited only by imagination. The sinks are the global waste bins. The ultimate long‐ term sink is the deep trenches of the oceans; short‐term sinks are biosystems such as the atmosphere, rivers, wetlands, and the land. The ability of the sinks to handle wastes is limited; most show adverse effects of pollutant loading in just a few years.

The most restricting rate‐limiting component in this three‐part model is the sinks. Currently, the depletion of resources is rarely the driving force for resource substitution; instead, change is driven by process innovation to beat the competition, or regulatory intervention imposed from outside. But given the limitations of the sinks, the pressure for modification of an industrial system will increasingly come from the need to reduce loadings to environmental sinks. To achieve sustainability, the Earth’s environment must be protected in multiple ways. For example, planners must

Sources

aim to minimize or eliminate anthropogenic changes to climate, net increases in acidification, loses of topsoil, and withdrawals of fossil water; moreover, biodiversity must be preserved, and buildup of toxic metals and other nonbiodegradable toxics in soils or sediments must be stopped. Zero discharge technologies attempt to accomplish these goals by reducing resource extraction and loadings to sinks. The objective is a closed loop in the economic subsystem, so that wastes inevitably created by human activities do not escape to contaminate the environment. Zero Discharge/Emissions proponent Gunter Pauli, the founder and former director of Zero Emission Research Institute, also notes that in the effort to eliminate waste, Zero Emissions “is nothing more than a persistent drive to cut costs.” Waste is a form of inefficiency, and an “economic system cannot be considered efficient, or ultimately competitive, if it generates waste” (Pauli 1996). Zero Discharge (or Emissions) leaves behind the linear “cradle to grave” concept of materials use (Figure 1.5) and embraces a cyclical, “cradle to cradle” vision (Figure 1.6), in which wastes become value‐added inputs and the raw materials for other production cycles. This is how natural systems dispose of waste, and according to Pauli, the only way to achieve sustainability. Meanwhile, the biological sinks are not increasing in capacity. Existing industries will keep operating and generating wastes – some of these wastes, as will be discussed later, containing richer concentrations of recoverable materials than virgin ones. In the interim, there will be a demand for technologies to manage and convert today’s wastes into usable feedstocks. Chemical process design engineers and consulting firms will provide focal services to meet this demand through technology development, system integration, and facility operation.

Economic subsystems

Air • Incineration • Waste heat/energy Water • Ocean outfalls • Air deposition • Discharge to streams and aqufiers Land • Landfills • Underground injection

Energy • Oil • Gas • Coal • Biomass Resources • Water • Air • Forests • Minerals

Virgin resource and fossil–fuel extraction currently dominate.

Sinks

An economic subsystem of population and goods produced. Resource refiners feed manufacturing and consumption in a predominantly linear system.

Consumed resources in the form of waste equal 94% of resources extracted. They are largely disposed of untreated to our surface ecosystems whose natural remediation processes are slower and overtaxed relative to our current loading rate.

Figure 1.5  The interrelationship of sources, systems, and sinks for a linear (cradle to grave) materials use pattern.

1.9  ­The New Role of Process Engineers and Engineering Firm

Economic subsystems

Sources

Sinks

Energy resources

Resource extraction is limited to resources needed to replace economic subsystem losses and growth in economics not met by dematerialization.

Energy waste

Material flows are reduced significantly through dematerialization, zero emissions, and industrial ecology. Efficiency in recycling and product design reduce energy consumption.

Loadings to the planetary sinks of air, land, and water are below their assimilation capacity.

Figure 1.6  The interrelationship of sources, systems, and sinks for a cyclic (Zero Emissions) materials use pattern.

1.9  ­The New Role of Process Engineers and Engineering Firms

●●

●●

Chemical process and product design engineers, environmental engineers, and consulting engineering firms can play a pivotal role as industries move toward the Zero Emissions or Zero Discharge paradigm, especially firms whose traditional niche has been to treat waste so that it is benign and acceptable for discharge. The role for these engineers in the twenty‐first century is to transform the effluent of one process to serve as the raw material for another process. The new role is not simply facilitating waste exchange; rather, the new jobs include the following: ●●

●●

●●

●● ●●

Assessing material flows through the economy and the use of raw materials, water, and energy Designing databases with a wider set of information about material flows and manufacturing processes Working with design firms to understand the production processes of the industries that produce the wastes Designing conversion processes Identifying purchasers for converted wastes

●●

Designing material transfer systems to carry wastes to industries that will use them as feedstock Identifying industrial clusters and understanding how to fit diverse industries into a successful industrial cluster Designing eco‐industrial parks and negotiating arrangements that are commercially sound and profitable, yet based on good personal relationships; voluntary, and yet in close collaboration with regulatory agencies

What this means for engineering firms is the need for a broader set of engineering skills and services. As can be seen, consulting engineering firms will find that achieving Zero Emissions entails expertise in areas that have not been part of engineering curriculum, or the professional engineer’s exam. Zero Emissions engineers need to be not only well trained in design for the environment, concurrent engineering, and industrial engineering but also be able to think and design outside the traditional boundaries of the factory to work in terms of industrial clusters. Many of the skills and services enumerated above would be applicable to the development of an agro‐industrial cluster such as the one in Namibia, described in Mini‐Case Study 1.1.

Mini-Case Study 1.1  Beer to Mushrooms: Focusing on the Productivity of Raw Materials In the town of Tsumeb in the African desert, Namibian nationals will be implementing Zero Emissions technology at a brewery inaugurated in January of 1997. The three main inputs into beer – grain, water, and energy – are scarce commodities in a developing nation. Brewing uses only 8–10% of the nutrients in grain, consumes 10 L of water for every liter of beer produced, and generally requires imported coal, an expensive and polluting energy source. The lignin-cellulose component of spent grain, which makes up 70–80% of its bulk, is indigestible to cattle, but it is easily broken down by the enzymes of mushrooms. It takes 4 T of spent grain to produce 1 T of mushrooms, which are a potentially lucrative cash crop for export,

because most southern African nations currently import mushrooms. The protein content of the spent grain – up to 26% – is used by earthworms, which in turn are fed to chickens and pigs. Processing the waste from the animals in a digester could supply all of the vapor energy required for brewing. Brewery wastewater is high in nutrients but is too alkaline for crops. However, it can be used to grow spirulina, which generate up to 70% protein. The brewery’s thermal waste could heat greenhouses or the brewery. These interrelated industries will form an optimal industrial cluster for increasing the productivity of the brewery’s raw materials in ways that also produce food for humans that is high in nutritional value.

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1.10  ­Zero Discharge (Emissions) Methodology Over the last few years, the members of zero discharge communities and industries have developed a five‐step methodology for implementing Zero Emissions. Pauli’s Breakthroughs (1996) provides a far more comprehensive approach that extends well beyond the manufacturing site. The summary provided here emphasizes the use and impact of a ZD approach at the manufacturing level.

1.10.1  Analyze Throughput The first step toward achieving Zero Discharge and/or Zero Emissions is an in‐depth review of the industry to see if total throughput is possible. This means determining whether all material inputs can be found in the final ­product – if there are no wastes, all inputs must have ended up in the product. One of the few industries where this can occur is cement manufacturing. In the Mini‐Case Study 1.1, however, only a small fraction of the nutrients in the grain ends up in beer. If throughput is not total, the next step is to determine whether the products manufactured can be easily reintegrated into the ecosystem without additional costs for ­processing, energy, or transportation. However, since this is rarely possible, most industries will not achieve Zero Discharge unilaterally. Process and product design engineers will probably find their first opportunities by meeting with their traditional clients, analyzing each client’s throughput, and looking for opportunities for pollution prevention and waste minimization that the client’s in‐house experts may not have seen. The analysis would include evaluating products and services presently being produced, processes and materials used, and management of environmental issues including energy efficiency, as well as clarifying the full scope of emissions.

1.10.2  Inventory Inputs and Outputs Once the initial analysis has determined that total throughput is not possible, and that wastes will be generated, the next step is to assess the industry’s inputs and outputs, and to inventory all the outputs (“wastes”). A diagram of the inputs and outputs of a system like that of Figures  1.2, 1.5, and 1.6 are then used to compile basic overview of the company’s resources and needs. From this information, design engineers and process specialists can attempt to modify the manufacturing process so that it can become a Zero Emissions system.

Extracting raw materials and processing them imposes significant environmental burdens. An analysis of the industrial metabolism of the product (i.e. its input, materials use, and life cycle expectancy) will help determine the path of least environmental impact. Some materials choices will yield better throughput or by‐products that are more suited for use as an input for another industry. Additional audits and inventories may be needed to determine manufacturing efficiency by percentage of input wasted, to quantify amounts of waste landfill by type of material, to account for amounts of materials collected for recycling, and to identify major emissions of waste heat and the site and amounts of wastewater discharges. Analysis of these outputs may reveal the most effective ways to reuse these outputs and help to determine which industries could use the wastes as raw materials. For example, at the Namibian brewery, spent grain, excess heat, and wastewater all have potential uses in producing food items.

1.10.3  Build Industrial Clusters In sectors that cannot achieve Zero Emissions unilaterally, it may be necessary to build industrial clusters. The input– output analysis leads directly into development of clusters of industries that can use each other’s outputs. Developing effective clusters calls for executives look beyond single industries and make innovative connections among seemingly unrelated potential partners in new industrial clusters. Companies are loathe to implement such changes, however. In addition to concerns about antitrust regulations, and the need to rely on single vendors for supply, there is fear that relinquishing information about waste stream composition will allow their competitors to deduce proprietary secrets. Also critical is the geographic location of the client’s potential partners, as transportation is a key factor in optimizing waste exchange and use of conversion technologies. The most obvious link in the search for industrial cluster partners will be obtaining industrial input data for other industrial sectors and determining if the client’s waste flows could serve (in some converted form) as a material input to another sector. The second place to look for candidate industrial clusters is the historical records of waste exchanges. These material flows will demonstrate which materials being discarded by a sector are of a volume and quality desirable to another sector. Industries that buy process wastes are taking in nonvirgin material of a grade that may fall short of the purchasers’ specification. This is an opportunity for materials blending. For example, plastics can be recycled to make a lumber‐like product, but the grade of such recycled ­products is not always acceptable as a direct input. If a

1.10  ­Zero Discharge (Emissions)

contaminated waste flow is not of sufficient volume, however, blending in virgin plastics can bring both quality and volume up to manufacturing specifications. Once the potential partners have been identified, the industrial cluster should be designed and developed. Kalundborg (Grann 1994) is an excellent example of a cluster that includes heavy industries, while Tsumeb’s cluster is based primarily around food production and processing. Elsewhere in the world, industrial cluster is yet to be developed. India and China are industrializing nations that have abundant and cheap supplies of coal, but burning it to generate electricity produces CO2, SOx, and NOx. The key to sustainability for industrializing countries will therefore be development of industrial clusters that link energy, agriculture, and sewage treatment, in the fundamental format for Zero Emission communities. The most effective incentive to develop such clusters is economics, and, unlike conventional SOx and NOx treatments, the system for the electron beam/ammonia conversation of these pollutant has a financial payback of 10–15 years. Section 9.2.3 treats this technology in more detail.

1.10.4  Develop Conversion Technologies The easiest connections for industrial clusters are through a simple, direct waste exchange. The next easiest route is to develop an intermediary process that will take one industry’s current waste stream, convert it to a ­usable form, and transfer it to a purchasing industry. Now we consider briefly the pivotal function of conversion technologies as illustrated by the problems encountered in the paper recycling industry as it works toward attaining Zero Emissions in the United States (see also Chapters 7 and 9). Paper recycling is quintessentially “green.” But current processes used to de‐ink paper remove only 70–80% of the ink particles, leaving recycled papers an unattractive gray. The wastes are a toxic mix of ink, short fibers, coating chemicals, and paper fillers that requires both primary and secondary treatment before disposal. De‐inking is both inefficient and expensive, and results in a product that is often higher priced and lower quality. Under the auspices of ZD industries, a conversion technology is being developed that results in 100% removal of ink and 3 viable outputs. The recaptured ink could be reused in printing or for making pencils (as is already done with ink from photocopiers). The long fibers could be made into paper again or used in cardboard. The remaining sludgy mixture of short fibers and residues could be dried and used as acoustic insulation inside building walls or as ceiling tiles. The sludge could be used

Methodolog

to make shock‐absorbent packaging such as egg cartons or replacements for corrugated cardboard. The industrial cluster built around paper recycling thus includes recapturing ink, making new paper, and making building and packaging materials. Canada, Latvia, and Italy have tested this conversion technology, the steam explosion system. Many cities, states, and national governments, however, require that recycled paper be used in newspapers, and where these regulations are in force, a system that produces a grade of paper better than that needed by newspapers is not likely to be implemented.

1.10.5  Designer Wastes So‐called designer wastes can serve as direct feedstock to another sector, or, if properly processed through a conversion technology, as processed feedstock. If the beer industry for example, used a sugar‐based cleanser instead of a caustic cleanser for its bottle‐washing process, the discharge water could serve as a direct feed to fish ponds, without needing any conversion. Yet other solutions will require installation assistance in adjusting or adapting material flows within the client’s processes so that its waste output is in an acceptable form. Building industrial clusters may involve working upstream within a facility to modify its production process so that the waste is produced in an acceptable “designer” form for conversion. Or, perhaps downstream, working with the purchaser industry, to help it modify its processes so that it can accept the converted waste. This means that the involved engineering consultants must become familiar with the products and materials provided by suppliers to the producer and the materials needed by the purchaser of the designer wastes. All parties must have access to a database of specific information about the level of impurities acceptable in each final product. For example, companies that produce basic material inputs (such as plastics, oils, lubricants, and papers) deal in high volumes and some manufacturing processes can tolerate impurities. These companies are already experienced in their own refining processes and may also be knowledgeable about the manufacturing requirements of their customers, but their expertise may not extend to particular impurities present in the producer’s waste stream. The database can provide the information necessary to complete the connections.

1.10.6  Reinvent Regulatory Policies Experienced professionals are probably already aware of how government policies inadvertently inhibit creativity in reuse of wastes. These policies can also inhibit formation of

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effective industrial clusters. For example, breweries are regulated as an industry and the facilities are generally located in industrial areas. However, to make efficient use of their discharge water in aquaculture, breweries should be located in agricultural zones. Similarly, regulations aimed at providing a market for recycled newsprint need to be revised so that technologies that produce a better grade of paper can flourish – and allow more complete reuse of all the other by‐products associated with complete de‐inking. Ironically, ZD goals are inhibited in the United States by regulations pursuant to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA). Transferring “wastes” among the members of industrial clusters is often prohibited by RCRA because its regulatory net entangles all wastes, whether hazardous or not. Its broad scope has the unintended consequences of creating disincentives to invest in recovery technologies and blocking progress toward pollution prevention and recycling. RCRA waste classifications can put kinks in potential closed‐loop systems. Indeed, as Robert Herman (1989) put it, “the essence of the environmental crisis is not nearly so much bad actors as the whole, often contradictory structure of incentives in the economy.” Regulatory policies need to be reinvented to foster development of breakthrough conversion technologies and encourage cross‐sector markets for designer wastes.

embodied in durable goods such as cement and ceramics (Allenby and Richards 1994). All of this translates into an estimated more than 12 billion T of industrial wastes annually in the United States (Allen and Rosselot 1997). In addition to materials lost as waste residuals during extraction and processing, finished goods are dissipated/ lost because they are present in concentrations too small to be economically recoverable. Many products are inherently dissipative, and lost with a single normal use. These include packaging, lubricants, solvents, flocculants, antifreezes, detergents, soaps, bleaches, dyes, paints, paper, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and germicides. From one‐half to as much as seven‐ eighths of the toxic heavy metals including lead, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, in insecticides (arsenic) and in wood preservatives, fungicides, catalysts, and plastic stabilizers are dispersed into the environment beyond economic recoverability. Other materials are lost to uses that are not inherently dissipative but are so in effect because of the difficulty of recycling. Allenby and Richards (1994) point out that the total elimination of manufacturing wastes probably is an unattainable goal because it would require, in addition to technological advances not yet in place, 100% cooperation by consumers.

1.11  ­Making the Transition

A critical element of an interim strategy is enhanced recovery. This can be approached from two directions: reuse of products and recycling of materials. Reuse of products includes return, reconditioning, and remanufacturing. The energy required for reuse and recycling is one of the key factors determining recoverability of a product. The closer the recovered product is to the form it needs to be in for recycling, the less energy is required to make that transformation. From the standpoint of economic development it is worth pointing out that the reconditioning or remanufacturing cycle is relatively less costly; it requires roughly half the energy and twice the labor per physical unit of output. Recycling materials means closing the loop between the supply of post‐consumer waste and the demand for resources for production. Recycling of materials will be the business of the Zero Emissions engineer; reuse of products will also involve the Zero Emissions engineer, but it will have lots of front‐end work from another professional, the concurrent engineer. Concurrent engineering, which incorporates aspects of industrial engineering, product design, and product manufacturing, is an integrated approach that seeks to optimize materials, assembly, and factory operation. These engineers examine the broader

The shift toward a ZD culture, especially in a world dominated by industrial ecology, will see the development of new products, services, and industries. Our global economic system depends on extracting massive quantities of materials from the environment – after extraction and processing, the “annual accumulation of active materials embodied in durables, after some allowance for discard and demolition, is probably not more than six percent of the total. The other 94 percent is converted into waste residuals as fast as it is extracted” (Allen and Shonnard 2012; Allenby and Richards 1994; Ayres et al. 1996). In the United States, this means more than 10 T of “active” mass (excluding fresh water) per person each year. Of this mass, roughly 75% is mineral and nonrenewable, and 25% is from biological sources. Of the biological materials, none of the food or fuel becomes part of durable goods and even most timber is burned as fuel or made into pulp and paper products that are disposed of. Of the mineral materials, about 80% of the mass of the ores is unwanted impurities, and of the final products, a large portion is processed into consumables and throwaways. Only in the case of nonmetallic minerals is as much as 50% of the mass

1.11.1  Recycling of Materials and Reuse of Products

1.11  ­Making the Transitio

context of a product, including technology for managing the environmental impacts of its transport, intended use, recyclability, and disposal, as well as the environmental consequences of the extraction of the raw material used in its production. The ultimate fate of all materials is thus dissipation, being discarded, or recycling and recovery. With 94% of materials extracted from the environment being converted to wastes, current levels of recovery are clearly not sufficient. Recovery of materials from wastes will reduce the extent of resource extraction (but will not slow the speed of material flows through the economy). Aluminum and lead are two resources currently being heavily recycled, but evidence shows that there is potential for a lot more resources to be recovered from wastes. Sherwood plots are diagrams that permit the graphic comparison of concentrations of materials in nature against their commodity cost. The sample plot in Figure 1.7 shows that the price for a commodity depends on its ­concentration in nature before extraction and refining. Figure 1.8 is a similar plot for metal price (2004) as a function of dilution (concentration) of metals in commercial ores; the relationship illustrates the concept that the more dilute a material is in its native ore, the more expensive it will be to purify into a commodity material (Johnson et al. 2007). Together, the Sherwood plots demonstrate the recovery potential of materials. The elements plotted above the line in Figure 1.7 should be vigorously recycled because they are present in individual by‐products in relatively high concen-

trations. Lead, zinc, copper, nickel, mercury, arsenic, silver, selenium, antimony, and thallium are more economical to recover from waste than from nature. Extensive waste trading could significantly reduce the quantity of material requiring disposal because resource extraction uses from wastes, not virgin feedstocks (Allen and Behmanesh 1994).

1.11.2 Dematerilization One critical component of the industrial ecology paradigm is dematerialization. Dematerialization means using less material to make products that perform the same function as predecessors. Sometimes this means smaller or lighter products, but other aspects can include increasing the lifetime of a product or its efficiency. The net effect is a reduction in overall resource extraction. Dematerialization is thus a way to increase the percentage of active materials embodied in durables, and to reduce the percentage that is left as waste residuals. However, dematerialization has limits in achieving Zero Emissions. We may also need to think of rematerialization – products that may or may not have a lighter weight in their final form, but whose production, use, and subsequent conversion or recyclability fits within the Zero Emissions paradigm. This is demonstrated by the ease and benefit of recycling older model cars versus the newer ones. Nonetheless, economists and engineers point out that optimizing for environmental protection alone means some loss in safety, efficiency, durability, convenience, attractiveness, and price.

103

Price ($/lb)

Sherwood plot

Tl

102

101

Se

Sb Hg

100 Zn

Pb

10–1

Ag

As

V

Ni Cd

Cu Cr

Ba

Be 10–2 100

101

102

103

104

105

106

Dilution (1/mass fraction)

Figure 1.7  Metals-specific Sherwood plot for waste streams: minimum concentration of metal wastes undergoing recycling versus metal prices. Source: From Johnson et al. (2007). American Chemical Society.

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106 Radium Vitamin B12 104

Price ($/lb)

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102

Penicillin

Mined gold Factor of 2 Differential in price

Uranium from ore 1 Copper 10–2

Mined sulfur Oxygen

100%

1%

Magnesium from seawater Bromine from seawater Sulfur from stack gas

1 thousand of 1%

1 millionth of 1%

1 billionth of 1%

Figure 1.8  A Sherwood diagram showing the correlation between the selling price of materials and their degree of dilution in the matrix from which they are separated.

1.11.3  Investment Recovery During the transition to Zero Emissions, another early need will be for companies to fill the “decomposer niche,” a term for a specialized form of recycling developed by Raymond Cote at Dalhousie University in Ottawa (1995). Just as decomposer organisms turn dead animals and vegetable matter into forms that can become food for other animals and plants, decomposer niche companies will “consume” otherwise unusable wastes by processing them into usable feedstock or disassembling equipment and marketing reusable components and materials. The work of decomposers also can be visualized as investment recovery. Taking a systematic approach to ending waste, investment recovery is a traditional service, according to Cote, “an integrated business process that identified, for redeployment, recycling, or remarketing, nonproductive assets generated in the normal course of business.” These assets include idle, obsolete, unused, or inoperable equipment, machinery, or facilities; excess raw materials, operating inventories, and supplies; construction debris; equipment and fixtures in facilities scheduled for demolition; off‐grade, out of specification, or discontinued products; and process waste (Cote 1995, 2003). The goal of investment recovery is to develop strategies and procedures to recapture the highest value from all surplus assets in a company or community. It seeks to reduce operating and disposal costs, prevent disposal of assets as

waste, and find markets for redistributing the by‐products for increased economic value. One of the operating paradigms for an investment recovery firm would be integration of its functions into a comprehensive strategy for an eco‐industrial park. Firms that specialize in this work base their fees on a retainer plus a percent of savings and/or revenues if there is an incentive.

1.11.4  New Technologies and Materials During transitional stages, existing industries can be identified as potential members of a cluster if minimal design engineering can make them compatible and most of the transfers of materials are occurring in a more basic commodity form, rather than as “designer wastes.” Once Zero Emissions has been incorporated at the drawing board level, facilities can be planned to work together in clusters so that the by‐products of each enterprise meet the feedstock specifications of other industries in the cluster. This will require innovations in materials and methods alike. 1.11.4.1  New, Less Toxic Chemicals and Materials

Examples of new materials include biopolymers, fiber‐ reinforced composites, high‐performance ceramics, and extra‐strength concrete. To meet basic environmental requirements, new materials will be biodegradable, nonpolluting, recyclable or convertible; made from renewable

1.11  ­Making the Transitio

Mini-Case Study 1.2  DaimlerChrysler’s ZD Wastewater Treatment Plant in Mexico DaimlerChrysler’s production complex in Toluca, Mexico, home of the Chrysler PT Cruiser, has received much attention not only because of its in-demand product but also because of its state-of-the-art ZD wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Located 37 miles north of Mexico City, Toluca suffered for years from a worsening water shortage due to urban sprawl, regional drought, and increased industrial activity. The city is one of the leading producers of beverages, textiles, and automobiles in Mexico, as well as a center for food processing. DaimlerChrysler, one of Mexico’s largest manufacturers, mindful of the mounting strain on the world’s natural resources, has consistently sought ways to decrease operational waste, reduce costs, and increase process efficiencies. Upon locating in Mexico, the automaker began to study the region’s rapidly dropping aquifer, hoping to

minimize the stress on this valuable resource, yet keep its operations in compliance with the federal government’s water quality standards. In 1999, the company hit upon a solution. It would build its own $17 million WWTP that would treat sanitary and manufacturing-process water generated by the facility’s four separate plants – engine, transmission, stamping, and assembly. And to make this WWTP truly state of the art, a comprehensive zero liquid discharge (ZLD) system would be installed. By using a ZLD system, the Toluca complex would avoid further depleting the local aquifer, the environmentally friendly and cost-efficient system would discharge no process water, but rather would recycle it to use throughout the facility. It was projected that implementing a ZLD solution and thus reusing water could extend the facility’s life without disrupting production and causing costly overhauls.

resources; have low energy requirements in production and use; and provide a final product with greater strength and durability and lower weight and volume.

Return on investment, however, would be much shorter (see Sections 7.3 and 7.3.1).

1.11.4.2  Improved Processes

1.11.5.1  System Design

Consultants can help managers cut costs and create new values by instituting real‐time monitoring and eliminating inefficiencies in the use of resources all along a product’s life cycle. These inefficiencies include incomplete utilization of material and energy resources, poor process controls, product defects, waste storage costs, discarded packaging, costs passed on to consumers for pollution or low energy efficiency, and the ultimate loss of resources through disposal and dissipative use. Poor resource productivity also can entail costs for waste disposal and regulatory penalties. Methods that are less energy‐intensive and more labor‐ intensive are more sustainable environmentally and socially.

1.11.5  New Mindset As a result of changes in materials and processes, engineering professionals will have to expand the purview of their design parameters. A larger, more integrated design for facilities and manufacturing processes is called for. This is where design for environment comes in: DFE examines the life cycle of the product and considers not only its primary use but the environmental consequences of its production, assembly, testing, servicing, and recycling. In designing an eco‐industrial park, for example, manufacturing processes would be linked to material flows and to energy flows. As a result, the design period and overall costs would be higher.

DaimlerChrysler put in operation ZLD systems of two kinds. The first uses reverse osmosis (RO) to produce a concentrate of total dissolved solids (TDS), which is sent to a large evaporator and eventually on to a lagoon or solar evaporator pond. Used in dry, arid areas of low elevation, this system is frequently found in the WWTPs of Northern Mexico’s automotive facilities. The other system, used at the Toluca facility, softens and removes silica from the RO concentrate through microfiltration before sending the water on to another RO unit where it is further concentrated. Water is then returned and blended with the water from the first stage water, where the concentrate is sent on to either an evaporator or a crystallizer to dry TDS to powder and eliminate the need to dispose of liquid. In essence, industrial plants with ZLD installations can expect to recover nearly 100% of water that would otherwise be discharged to the environment as wastewater. At the Toluca facility, the WWTP recovers 95% or more of the water used for processing, with a recovery rate of up to 237 500 gallons per day (gpd). In actuality, the ZLD installation at the Toluca facility is two separate systems: a sanitary water system that biologically treats wastewater from the complex’s restrooms, showers, cafeterias, and other domestic areas, and a manufacturing‐process water system that chemically treats wastewater mixed with heavy metals and paint from the assembly plant. The latter also treats

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wastewater containing emulsified and soluble oils from the facility’s stamping, transmission, and engine plants. In the sanitary water system, domestic water is collected and sent through a screening mechanism before moving on to the biological treatment system’s equalization tank, ensuring a constant, even flow of water through the system. This water is then passed through jet aeration sequential batch reactors that treat the water with microorganisms and air to reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demands (COD), as well as  suspended solids. The complex uses the 150 000– 200 000 gpd of disinfected water to irrigate its landscape. The microorganisms and solids recovered from the batch reactors are then sent through a sludge digester and eventually a filter press that eliminates the water. While the dewatered sludge is used as fertilizer, the filtered water re‐enters the system. Wastewater from the Toluca facility’s three machining plants is directed through the manufacturing‐process system where it is first chemically treated, passing through a filtering screen. In a separate tank, chemicals are used to de‐emulsify the free‐floating oils that comprise most of the waste. Afterward, the oils are removed and stored in another tank before disposal. The process water from the machining plants is then mixed with water from the assembly plant that contains residue from the spray painting, phosphating, E‐coating, and body‐ wash operations. Upon being mixed with a combination of ferric chloride, lime and magnesium oxide, metal pollutants and silica are rendered insoluble and turned into sludge that is removed and sent to a landfill. Then, to further lower the proportion of unwanted organic compounds, the water is pumped to a biological system that reduces the BOD to 20–30 ppm. 1.11.5.2 Results

Since installing the wastewater recovery system, the Toluca facility has noted several benefits, including decreased production and operation costs, reduced aquifer use, better environmental friendliness, and greater employee safety (Zacerkowny 2002). Moreover, the integrated system helps preserve the environment, is safe for employees to work with, and provides almost 7000 jobs to local residents. The Toluca industrial complex uses approximately 250 000 gpd of water, recovering more than 95% of its processing water. The ZLD system allows the facility to treat more than 550 000 gpd, significantly reducing the amount of water that must be drawn from  the local aquifer. Using treated water might also extend the life of the facility’s equipment, as the salt content of the processed industrial water is much lower than that of the aquifer.

1.11.6  In the Full ZD (Emission) Paradigm Designing ZD systems requires an expansion of the focus and outputs of the traditional design engineer. Concurrent engineers need to incorporate design for the environment. Industrial engineers need to think in terms of industrial clusters. Environmental engineers need to understand upstream processes better so that they can develop designer wastes. Environmental engineers also need to revamp their processes to begin mimicking resource refining. ZD engineering firms are expected to be working with design for environment engineers, concurrent engineers, and industrial engineers. They should all be seeking to design wastes, conversion processes, and industrial clusters. Setting the stage for overall product design, the industrial ecology approach assists companies in looking beyond the product to its functionality over its life cycle. Services and products should be designed and delivered differently as the following six strategic elements of industrial ecology are applied: ●●

●● ●● ●●

●● ●●

Selection of materials with desired properties at the outset Use of “just in time” materials Substitution of processes to eliminate toxic feedstock Modification of processes to contain, remove, and treat toxics in waste streams Engineering of a robust and reliable process Consideration of durability and end of life recyclability

ZD solutions that use conversion technologies should be developed, designed, built, and marketed by the appropriate professionals who understand not only the industrial clusters and the processes involved but also the upstream and downstream requirements. 1.11.6.1  Opening New Opportunities

As the ZD mission gains currency, new opportunities are revealed – to provide cost‐saving new design applications, to design new product lines, and to win new customers. These opportunities include the following: ●●

●●

Finding cost savings and new revenues in existing operations. Initial cost savings at existing operations should come from pollution prevention and waste minimization, which may already have been optimized. However, new revenues will come from identifying a viable market for the waste stream after it has been converted. Entering new markets for existing goods and services. New markets will be entered when cluster partners are  identified; for example, brewery specialists will expand into agricultural sectors. The market for handling “designer wastes” is expected to grow significantly,

1.12  ­Constraints and Challenge

●●

●●

●●

●●

especially for firms specializing in reprocessing. Producers of a wide range of materials processing equipment such as grinding, sifting, sorting, purifying, separating, and packaging will find new markets. However, in some cases the conversion process will be handled by an intermediary company that will alter the wastes mechanically, chemically, or biologically to meet customer specifications. Developing new technologies, processes, and materials. Many of the pollution control firms will begin partnering with the upstream commodity producers (e.g. petroleum, chemical, and mining companies) and learning their refining techniques. Supporting the organizational changes, and technical and information needs of a Zero Emissions‐based economy. This will be a business opportunity primarily for those offering skills in informational and organizational systems. Integrating technologies and methods into innovative new systems. As Zero Emissions expands, professionals from different sectors will connect to benefit from each other’s skills and experience. Developing the infrastructure for eco‐industrial parks. Requires equipment to channel the flow of materials, water, or heat between plants and communities. Civil engineering firms that specialize in urban design and infrastructure systems should find great opportunities in providing the integrated system designs.

1.11.6.2  Providing Return on Investment

A simple economic metric, return on investment (ROI) is a quick measure of when an item will pay for itself. The time between the initiation of an investment and the achievement of ROI is called the payback period. Pollution control technology, which is not traditionally viewed as an investment that is able to generate a return on investment, is usually measured in terms of lowest available cost to meet regulatory guidelines (see also Chapter  7). If wastes are viewed as materials, however, as in ZD, the whole picture changes. Some have joked about giving all materials produced in a facility a product name and an advertising budget and/discontinuing any “product” that does not sell. Engineers have historically been compensated based on overall project cost. Incentives need to be shifted to designs that reduce material and energy flows. Compensation based on energy efficiency is being implemented in some projects and it is successful because energy efficiency can be measured in a single unit (joules of energy saved). While material flows are not as easy to quantify in a single unit, waste recovery systems can provide an excellent return on investment, as illustrated in Mini‐Case Study 1.3.

Mini-Case Study 1.3  Recovery of Wastes from Palm Oil Extraction Yields High Return on Investment Recovery of wastes from agro-industries is an extremely promising aspect of Zero Emissions. This project focuses on recovering all of the solid, liquid, gaseous, and thermal wastes from the Golden Hope Plantation in Malaysia, the largest oil palm plantation in the world. With the commitment of Meta Epsi, a large engineering group with substantial interests in palm oil plantations, operation of the pilot project for the total use of palm oil biomass commenced in the summer of 1996. The pilot project uses steam explosion to provide for conversion of biomass into recoverable fibers, with a goal of reusing the spent seeds, bunches, leaves, and trunks that Golden Hope used to pay to have disposed of. It costs $50 Malaysian (M$50) to produce 1 T of commercially usable fiber, which can be sold for approximately M$350. Products made from the fiber include MDF board, stuffing for car seats, and bedding for medical use. Just one of the mills built to process waste fiber generates pre-tax profits of approximately M$12.5 million (about $3 million) (Malaysian Ringgit ~ $0.24).

1.12  ­Constraints and Challenges The implementation of Zero Emissions faces constraints and challenges, as well as new opportunities. For example, the use of dissipative materials poses a design challenge: If solvents and flocculants are no longer to be used, what would it be replaced? Chemical manufacturers need to work with design engineers to arrive at an understanding of the constraints of separation technologies so that manufacturing any material without emissions is difficult, but working with chemicals is particularly challenging because of the need to develop nontoxic materials that are also biodegradable. Two possible solutions are biological. ●●

●●

Biopolymers are an outgrowth of chemurgy, the division of applied chemistry that deals with industrial utilization of organic raw materials, especially from agro‐business. These substances, complex molecules formed in biological systems, can replace toxic, dissipative materials currently used as adhesives, absorbents, lubricants, soil conditioners, cosmetics, drug delivery vehicles, and textile dissipative. Substitutes for toxic materials and mechanical processes to substitute for dissipative materials are aspects of the same principle. Enzymes are natural catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. They function best in mild conditions, so their use requires up

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to one‐third less energy than many synthetic chemicals; paradoxically, this lower need for energy can be an obstacle in a system that still rewards large‐scale energy use with reduced rates. Enzymes are especially useful in systems designed to reduce or eliminate dissipative losses. There is also a need for a taxonomy of environmental technologies that clarifies opportunities for fast developing, generic processes to address such recurring problem as process large streams of contaminated water from various processes and oxidation in air. Chemical engineering and related professions ought to be able to make rapid advances in such areas. Many of the industries in the investment recovery or “decomposer niche” are hard put to compete against large‐ scale facilities that produce materials from virgin materials. More recently, however, economies of scale for resource extractors and processors, along with cheap energy supplies, have been introduced almost everywhere in the world. For example, economies of scale have enabled chemical companies to produce plastics at a price that other manufacturers, as well as the individual consumer, can afford.

1.12.1  The Challenges in Industrial Environmental Management We need to educate and train current generation engineers, managers, business owners, and policy makers with the skills and knowledge they need to be our champion stewards of environmental management and expert on lean manufacturing of major industries demonstrating ZDZE operations. Engineers have always faced design constraints. Historically, these constraints were the laws of physics, availability of materials, and energy. Modern engineers still face the limitation of the laws of physics but have been granted larger amounts of energy and a wide variety of materials. Modern society has added design parameters that include safety, durability, convenience, regulatory compliance, attractiveness, and price. A true engineer does not view regulation as an obstruction, but rather as a design constraint like efficiency and durability. The goal has always been to develop the optimal design within given constraints, whether they are the laws of nature or society. Unfortunately, the actions of our modern society have placed undue burdens on nature. Nature’s ability to absorb excessive amounts of pollutants and stressors while still providing critical services of acceptable water quality, clean air, food, and biodiversity is limited. Industrial ecology is Western society’s response to meeting the challenge of sustainable development. To manufacturers falls the challenge of attaining Zero Emissions.

They in turn pass this directive to their engineers. To engineers, the advance of technology has meant increasing degrees of freedom with regard to design. The collective body of knowledge and our harnessing of materials and energy has been the source of these freedoms. Safety was the first man‐made design constraint that society imposed under the name of social good. Engineers responded to meet the challenge. Now society recognizes the need to impose a design parameter of Zero Emissions. Engineers will meet this challenge and accept it as they have the laws of physics – as a given.

1.12.2  Codes of Ethics in Engineering Codes of ethics state the moral responsibilities of engineers as seen by the profession, and as represented by a professional society. Because they express the profession’s collective commitment to ethics, codes are enormously important, not only in stressing engineers’ responsibilities but also the freedom to exercise them. Codes of ethics play at least eight essential roles: serving and protecting the public, providing guidance, offering inspiration, establishing shared standards, supporting responsible professionals, contributing to education, deterring wrongdoing, and strengthening a profession’s image (also see Appendix J).

1.13  ­The Structure of the Book 1.13.1  What Is in the Book? Chapter 1: This chapter addresses why industrial environmental management is important! Environmental management is a very crucial part of human well‐being that needs to be deeply considered. Formulated design seeks to steer the development process to take advantage of opportunities, avoid hazards, mitigate problems, and prepare people for unavoidable difficulties by improving adaptability and resilience. It is a process concerned with human–environment interactions, and seeks to identify: what is environmentally desirable; what are physical, economic, social and technological constraints to achieving that process; and what are the most feasible options. Actually, there can be no concise universal definition of environmental management; however, it can be briefly summarized as supporting sustainable development; demanding multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary or even holistic approaches; it should integrate and reconcile different development viewpoints, co‐ordinate science, engineering, technology, social, policy making, and planning; state proactive processes; timescales and concerns

1.13  ­The Structure of the Boo

ranging from local to global issues; and one stresses stewardship rather than exploitation while dealing with a world affected by humans. In other perspectives, environmental management can be explained as methods of ways when dealing issues due to the importance of the need to improve environmental stewardship by integrating ecology, policy making, planning, and social development. The goals include sustaining and (if possible) improving existing resources; preventing and overcoming environmental problems; establishing limits; founding and nurturing institutions that effectively support environmental research, monitoring, and management resources; warning of threats and identifying positive change opportunities; (where possible) improving quality of life; and finally, identifying new technology or policies that are useful. Chapter  2: The objective of this chapter is to introduce the genesis of world environmental problems and to provide an overview of the history behind present environmental laws and regulations of pollution in various countries and continents. Engineers in all disciplines practice a profession that must obey rules governing their professional conduct and ethics. One important set of rules that all engineers should be aware of is environmental statues, which are laws enacted by US Congress and governments of other countries around the world. Environmental law, also known as environmental and natural resources law, is a collective term describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, common, and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment. The core environmental law regimes address environmental pollution. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by environmental legal principles, focus on the management of specific natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries. Other areas, such as environmental impact assessment, may not fit neatly into either category but are important components of environmental law. Chapter 3: This chapter provides a summary of industrial wastewater sources, wastewater characteristics, wastewater treatment, reuse and discharge, industrial sources of air pollutions, inventories, air pollution control, solid waste and hazardous waste characteristics, treatments, and management. Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered unusable during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, industries, mills, and mining operations. Mass manufacturing has existed since the start of the Industrial Revolution. Some examples of industrial wastes are discussed including (but not limited to) chemical solvents,

paints, sandpaper, paper products, industrial by‐products, metals, plastics, and radioactive wastes. Toxic waste, chemical waste, industrial solid waste, and municipal solid waste are designations of industrial wastes. Sewage treatment plants can treat some industrial wastes, i.e. those consisting of conventional pollutants such as biochemical oxygen demand, COD, suspended solid, and total suspended solid. Industrial wastes containing toxic pollutants require specialized treatment systems. Chapter 4: This chapter describes and deals with various important aspects of selecting the best remedial control technologies for pollutants, managing wastes, monitoring, sampling industrial water, air, and solid and hazardous materials, modes of sample collections, sample analyses by various analytical, physical–chemical methods approved by governmental agency, as required quality control and quality assurance, properly conducted laboratory auditing, testing, monitoring, permitting, report keeping, reporting, and compliance with local, state, and federal governments for discharging wastewater, emitting air, pollutants, and safely disposing of solid and hazardous materials. Chapter 5: This chapter addresses risk assessment, which is an organized process used to describe and estimate the likelihood of adverse health and environmental impacts from exposures to chemicals released to air, water, and land. Risk assessment is also a systematic, analytical method used to determine the probability of adverse effects. A common application of risk assessment methods is to evaluate human health and ecological impacts of chemical releases into the environment. Information collected from environmental monitoring or modeling is incorporated into models of worker activity and exposure forms conclusion about the likelihood of adverse effects are formulated. As such, risk assessment is an important tool for making decisions with environmental and public health consequences, along with economic, societal, technological, and political consequences of proposed actions. This chapter addresses the assessment of risks to human health as well as ecological risks and, briefly, ecological risk management. In addition a major section is devoted to industrial and manufacturing process safety, federal and state occupational safety laws and regulations, and management occupational health. Chapter 6: This chapter describes the wastes produced by industrial activities, which include materials that are rendered unusable during manufacturing processes such as that of factories, industries, mills, and mining operations. This wastefulness has existed since the start of the Industrial Revolution. Some examples of industrial wastes and sources are chemicals and allied products, solvents, pigments, sludge, metals, ash, paints, furniture and fixtures, paper and allied products, plastics, rubber, leather, textile mill

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products, petroleum refining and related industries, electronic equipment and components, industrial by‐products, metals, radioactive wastes, miscellaneous manufacturing industries, and the list goes on. Hazardous or toxic wastes, chemical waste, industrial solid waste, and municipal solid waste are also designations of industrial wastes. More than 12 billion T of industrial wastes are generated annually in the United States alone. This is roughly equivalent to more than 40 T of waste for every man, woman, and a child in the United States. The sheer magnitude of these numbers is cause for big environmental concern and drives us to identify the characteristics of the wastes, the various industrial operations that are generating the waste, the manner in which the waste are being managed, and the industrial pollution prevention policy and strategies. The first portion of this chapter is devoted to the pollution prevention hierarchy. Next there is an overview of how LCA tools can be applied to choose best available technologies (BACT) to minimize the waste at various stages of manufacturing processes of products. Finally, a few case studies on industrial competitive processes and products applying LCA tools are reviewed; and hence, also selections of BACT to demonstrate hierarch pollution prevention (P2) and environmental performance strategies. Chapter 7: The role of economics in pollution prevention is of tantamount important, even as important as the ability to identify technologies changes to the process, new and emerging technologies, ZD technologies’, technologies for biobased engineered chemicals, products, renewable energy sources, and associated costs. This chapter shows some methods that can be used to assess the costs of implementing pollution prevention technologies and making cost comparisons to evaluate the cost‐ effectiveness of various operations. The concept of best available control technologies is introduced and we analyze the costs and benefits of manufacturing biobased products. The topics treated illustrate that biobased new development can lead to sustainable economic progress and a healthier planet. Sustainable development is about creating a business climate in which better goods and services are produced using less energy and materials with no or less waste and pollution. Natural steps and systems are a model for thinking about how to produce, consume, and live in sustainable cycles: nature produces little or no waste, relies on free and abundant energy from sun, and uses renewable resources. In this chapter, we focus on a framework that integrates environmental, social, and economic interests into effective chemical and allied business strategies. Chapter 8: In this chapter our major focus is on lean manufacturing of various products while applying techniques and methodologies to achieve zero defects in products, and

significantly eliminate waste and discharges to environment from the manufacturing process. The quality of products, processes, and services has become a major decision factor in most industries and businesses today. Regardless of whether the consumer is an individual, a corporation, a military defense program, or a retail store, the consumer is making purchase decisions, he or she is likely to consider quality to be equal in importance to cost and schedule. Consequently, quality improvement has become a major concern to industries and businesses. Quality means fitness for use with zero defects or zero effects in environmentally conscious manufacturing. For example, you or I may purchase automobiles that we expect to be free of manufacturing defects and that should provide reliable and economical transportation, a retailer buys finished goods with the expectation that they are properly packaged and arranged for easy storage and display, and a manufacturer buys raw material and expects to process it with no rework or scrap. In other words, all consumers expect that the products and services they buy will meet their requirements. These requirements define fitness for use. Quality or fitness for use is determined through the interaction of quality of design and quality of conformance. Quality of design for environment and other aspects is defined by the different grades or levels of performance, reliability, serviceability, and function that are the result of deliberate engineering and environmental management decisions. By quality of conformance, we mean systematic reduction of variability and elimination of defects until every unit, batch, and product produced is identical in physical and chemical properties (zero defect and zero effect). Chapter  9: The rate of industrial hazardous waste ­generation in the United States is approximately 750 ­million T/Y. Once these materials are designated as hazardous, the costs of managing, treating, storing, and disposing of them increase dramatically. This chapter describes some specific industrial waste minimization processes and technologies that have been successfully operating and provides other methodologies including industrial ecology, eco‐industrial park, manufacturing process intensification, and integration. The wastes (in air, water, or as solid) or by‐products generated during manufacturing process are recovered. The materials and energy recovered from waste streams either are reused in the plant or are sold to another plant as feedstock. It is possible in practice, as well as in theory, to isolate some industrial facilities almost completely from the environment by recycling all wastes into materials that can then be manufactured into consumer products. An example of such a facility is a coal‐fired power plant. An electron beam–ammonia conversion unit adds ammonia to the effluent gases, which then irradiates

Problems

electronically, producing ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate that are sold as feedstock to fertilizer manufacturing; there is enhanced recovery of mercury from flue gas by adsorption and mercury recovery is complete. The details of these two processes are given as case studies later in Sections 9.2 and 9.4. Also, two separate case studies have been presented that highlight a profitable “waste‐ to‐energy” recovery generating electricity and heat, and making chemicals and energy from gasification of black liquor as by‐products of pulping process. Our goal is to modify industrial processes so that services and manufactured goods can be produced without waste. But it is important to understand that some manufacturing processes inherently produce wastes, even after all reasonable efforts at pollution prevention. Thus, in some cases the use of a conversion technology may be more appropriate than a program of pollution prevention: many industrial wastes can be processed to render them viable as material inputs to another industry or to part of an industrial cluster of several connected industries – as part of the movement of “industrial ecology.” Chapter  10: Engineers play an important role in global sustainable manufacturing and development by designing production systems for materials: minerals, chemicals, energy, water, electricity generation and distribution, transportation, buildings plus other structures, and consumer products. These designs have impact on the environment, economics, and societal benefits at scales that vary from local to global and temporal scales that vary from minutes to decades. As engineers create designs, they do not only evaluate their designs at multiple use and sustainability index (scale), they also embed their designs in complex systems. The field of transportation provides an illustration of the multiple layers of systems in which engineers create designs. Among the most visible products designed by engineers are automobiles. Engineers design engines, and improvements to the design of a fossil fuel–powered engine

for an automobile can increase fuel efficiency and reduce environmental impacts of emissions associated with burning fuels, while simultaneously reducing the cost of operating the vehicle. The size, power, and fuel efficiency of the engine must be balanced with the weight of the vehicle. The use of materials and fuels by automobiles are embedded in complex fuel and material supply systems. Developing systems to recycle the materials that make up the automobile at the end of its useful life might improve the environmental and economic performance of global materials flows. Use of alternative power sources, such as electricity or biofuels can impact flows of fuels, which, in turn, might impact global flows of materials such as water. Finally, the design of cities that reduce the need for personal transportation could dramatically reduce the environmental impacts of transportation systems and would also transform social structures. In this chapter, sustainable design is very much emphasized and lays a foundation. Sustainable engineering is the design, commercialization, and use of processes and products that are feasible and economical while minimizing both the generation of pollution at the source and the risk to human health and the environment. The discipline embraces the concept that decisions to protect human health and the environment can have the greatest impact and cost effectiveness when applied early in the “design and development phase of a process or product.” Sustainable engineering transforms existing engineering disciplines and practices to those that promote sustainability. This new discipline incorporates the development and implementation of technologically and economically viable products, processes, and systems that promote human welfare while protecting human health and elevating the protection of the biosphere as a criterion in engineering solutions. To fully implement sustainable green engineering solutions, engineers use numerous principles and tools that are described in this chapter.

Problems 1.1 State why industrial environmental management is a critically important part of human well‐being and sustainable development?

1.5 Define sustainability. Explain why the concept of “Zero Discharge and Zero Waste” in manufacturing are the keys to sustainability.

1.2 Define waste as pollution.

1.6 What are the basic environmental challenges that must be met to meet world demands for (a) clean air, (b) clean water, and (c) arable land?

1.3 Explain the difference between pollution prevention and minimization of waste. 1.4 What is the key point of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990?

1.7 Using Zero Waste, Zero Defect and Zero Effect, and Zero Discharge, (a) what conversion technologies need to be developed? [Hint: Check out Figures 1.7

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and 1.8.] (b) What are the investment management points of view when manipulating the profit margins? (c) What are the constraints and challenges that must be met to meet regulatory requirements? 1.8 Fifteen fields of environmental management are introduced in this chapter. Answer the following: (a) Choose seven fields that work closely together and explain the commonality that the eight remaining fields have in common. (b) How is consensus methodology achieved between groups? (c) Which field of environmental management requires global support for human health?

1.9 D  oes ISO support industrial environmental management system, and if it does, how? 1.10 W  hat are the key elements of an environmentally conscious manufacturing strategy? 1.11 A  s chemical process and product design engineers, as well as construction, industrial, and environmental engineers, how you can play a pivotal role as industries move toward the Zero Emissions or Zero Discharge paradigm.

­References Allen, D.T. and Behmanish, N. (1994). Wastes as raw materials. In: The Greening of Ecosystems (eds. B. Allenby and D. Richards). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Allen, D.T. and Rosselot, K.S. (1997). Pollution Prevention for Chemical Processes, 19–32. New York, NY, Chapter 2: Wiley. Allen, D.T. and Shonnard, D.R. (2012). Sustainable Engineering: Concepts, Design, and Case Studies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Allenby, B.R. and Richards, D.J. (1994). The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Ayres, R.U., Ayres, L.W., and Ayres, L. (1996). Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Cote, R.P. (1995). Supporting pillars for industrial ecosystems. Journal of Cleaner Production 5 (1–2): 67–74. Cote, R.P. (2003). A Primer on Industrial Ecosystems: A Strategy for Sustainable Industrial Development, 1–34. Halifax, NS: Eco‐Efficiency Center, School for Resources and Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University. Das, T.K. (2005). Toward Zero Discharge: Innovative Methodology and Technologies for Process Pollution Prevention. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Delmas, M. (2009). Erratum to “Stakeholders and Competitive Advantage: The Case of ISO 14001”. Production and Operations Management. 13 (4): 398. Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R. (1995). Industrial Ecology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Grann, H. (1994). The industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg, Denmark. Paper presented at the National Academy of

Engineering’s Conference on Industrial Ecology, Irvine, CA (9–13 May 1994). Herman, R. (1989). Technology and Environment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Hutchens, S. (2010). Using ISO 9001 or ISO 14001 to gain a competitive advantages. Intertake. www.intertek‐sc.com (accessed 21 September 2019). Johnson, J., Harper, E.M., Lifset, R., and Graedel, T.E. (2007). Dining at the periodic table: metals concentrations as they relate to recycling. Environmental Science and Technology 41: 1759–1765. Pauli, G. (1996). Breakthroughs. Haslemere, Surrey: Epsilon Press. Potoski, M. and Prakash, A. (2005). Green clubs and voluntary governance: ISO 14001 and firms’ regulatory compliance. American Journal of Political Science 49 (2): 235. Sheldon, C. (1997). ISO 14001 and Beyond: Environmental Management Systems in the Real World. New York: Prentice Hall. USEPA (1992). Facility Pollution Prevention Guide, EPA/600/R‐92/088. Washington, DC: USEPA, Office of Research and Development. Van der Veldt, D. (1997). Case studies of ISO 14001: a new business guide for global environmental protection. Environmental Quality Management 7 (1): 1–19. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Zacerkowny, O. (2002). Not a drop leaves the plant. Pollution Engineering 34: 19–22.

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2 Genesis of Environmental Problem Worldwide International Environmental Regulations

2.1 ­Introduction Engineers in all disciplines practice a profession of those who must obey rules governing their professional conduct. One important set of rules that all engineers should be aware of is environmental statues, which are laws enacted by US Congress and governments of other countries around the world. Environmental law, also known as environmental and natural resources law, is a collective term describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, common, and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment. The core environmental law regimes address environmental pollution. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by environmental legal principles, focus on the manage­ ment of specific natural resources, such as forests, miner­ als, or fisheries. Other areas, such as environmental impact assessment, may not fit neatly into either category but are nonetheless important components of environmental law. The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of history behind present environmental laws and regulations and environmental pollution in various countries and ­continents. Much of the materials presented in this chapter has been adopted from various sources that include the  ­following: United States Code (USC); Code of Federal  Regulations (CFR); United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA); United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP); Centre for International Environmental Law; Environmental Law Handbook by Sullivan and Adams (1997); Environmental Regulatory Calculations Handbook by Stander and Theodore (2008); Environmental Law by Upadhyay (2012); Environmental Law and Policy in India: Cases, Materials and Statues by Divan and Rosencranz (2002); Craig, Selected Environmental Law Statutes, West Academic Publishing Co. (2016); Lynch

(1995); Google; and Wikipedia. Most of these sources can be found online. Environmental law came into existence as a result of confrontation with the serious problems concerning envi­ ronment, prior, during, and post Industrial Revolution. In response to environmental problems, laws seek to protect and promote environment. It is designed to prevent, con­ trol, and regulate environmental pollution. Environmental protection and its preservation is today’s concern of all. Present environmental conditions in many parts of the world clearly indicate that human activities on the Earth are interconnected. Today society’s interaction with nature is so extensive that environment questions have assumed all proportions affecting humanity at large. Environmental destruction and pollution have seriously threatened human life, health, and livelihood. Thus, there has been a thrust on the protection of environment all across the world. If the quality of life is to be assured to present and future generations, they should be saved from the environmental failures. Nature’s gifts to humanity in the form of flora and fauna have to be preserved in natural form. The proper balance of the world’s eco system is in urgent need. The only answer to tackle this problem is sus­ tainable development. The purpose of environmental law is to protect and preserve our water, air, Earth, and atmos­ phere from pollution. But the law alone cannot tackle the problem of pollution. There has to be awareness of the problem and sustained efforts are required to manage it. The situation may be clarified by noting that with the development of science and technology and with ever‐ increasing world population came tremendous changes in the human environment. Such changes upset the eco‐laws, shifted the balance between human life and the environ­ ment. In such a situation, it became necessary to regulate human behaviors and social transactions with new laws, designed to cope with the changing conditions and values.

Industrial Environmental Management: Engineering, Science, and Policy, First Edition. Tapas K. Das. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Das/IEM_1e

2  Genesis of Environmental Problem Worldwide

Accordingly, a new branch of law called environmental law, developed in order to face the myriad challenges of such system. The need of environmental protection is a big issue and ranks high among people’s priorities. Also the issue of environmental protection is big in terms of the size of the problems on hand and the measures required to solve them. Some of the major problems, for example, are pop­ ulation growth (Figure 2.1), global warming (Figure 2.2), depletion of ozone layer, acid rain, toxic waste, and deforestration. Long‐term global population growth is difficult to pre­ dict. The United Nations and the U.S. Census Bureau both give different estimates – according to the UN, the world population reached about 7.31 billion in late 2015 (United Nations Secretariat 2015). Figure 2.1 shows a trend that the human population has been growing rapidly since the mid‐ 1800s, which goes hand in hand with the degradation of the environment’s natural equilibrium. Population increase over the last two decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas (Wallach 2005), which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from indus­ trial and human contaminants (Water 2011). Urbanization causes overcrowding and increasingly unsanitary living conditions, especially in developing countries, which in

turn exposes an increasing number of people to disease. About 79% of the world’s population is in developing coun­ tries, which lack access to sanitary water and sewer sys­ tems, giving rise to disease and deaths from contaminated water and increased numbers of disease‐carrying insects (Powell 2009). Figure 2.2 shows recent behavior of average global tem­ perature anomaly (land and ocean combined). As can be seen in Figure 2.2, the bulk of the warming has occurred in two periods – from 1910 through 1940 and from 1980 to the present. Line plot of monthly mean global surface temper­ ature anomaly, with the base period 1951–1980. The black line shows meteorological stations only; circles are the land–ocean temperature index, as described in Hansen et  al. (2010). The land–ocean temperature index uses sea surface temperatures. These problems are global issues which require an appropriate global response. The question of environ­ mental protection is big issue in terms of the range of problems and issues, namely air pollution, water pollu­ tion, safe drinking water, pesticides, noise pollution, waste disposal, radio activity and waste, and conserva­ tion of forests and wild life. The list is exhaustive. Moreover, the issue in the field of environment is big in terms of the knowledge and skills required to understand a particular issue to be solved. Accordingly, it can be said that environmental issues range “from a local street

World total population 12 11 10 9 Population (billion)

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1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

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2100

Figure 2.1  World’s population growth over 100 years. Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2017).

2.2  ­Genesis of the Environmental Proble

1.0

Temperature anomaly (°C)

0.8

Global mean estimates based on land and ocean data Annual mean Lowess smoothing

0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 1880

NASA GISS 1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Figure 2.2  Earth’s temperature rise since industrialization over 100 years. Source: http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp.graphs.

c­ orner to the stratosphere.” It is thus clear that the humanity faces overwhelming environmental problems. Law is invoked to protect humanity and our eco‐system by solving environmental problems as they strike directly at our most intimate links to the biosphere, which is a thin shell of life – only about five miles thick – covering the planet like the skin of an apple. The range of environmental protection has worldwide coverage and is not confined to an isolated area or nation. The problem of environment pollution is global and con­ cerns all countries irrespective of their size, level of devel­ opment, or ideology. Notwithstanding political division of the world into national units, oceanic world is an intercon­ nected whole and winds that blow over the countries are also one. Environment is a universal phenomenon pervad­ ing the whole world at large. If the nuclear test is carried out in one part of the world, the fall out may be carried by winds to any other part of the world and such fall out of irresponsible disposal of use radioactivity from a remote energy planet in one country may turn out to have greater adverse effect on the neighboring countries than the dan­ ger of a full‐fledged war.

2.1.1  Environmental History Environmental history is the study of human interaction with the natural world over time. In contrast to other his­ torical disciplines, it emphasizes the active role nature plays in influencing human affairs. Environmental histori­ ans study how humans both shape their environment and are shaped by it. Environmental history emerged in the United States out of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and much of its impetus still stems from present‐day global

environmental concerns (Chakrabarti 2006). The field was founded on conservation issues but has broadened in scope to include more general social and scientific history and may deal with cities, population, or sustainable develop­ ment. As all history occurs in the natural world, environ­ mental history tends to focus on particular time‐scales, geographic regions, or key themes. It is also a strongly mul­ tidisciplinary subject that draws widely on both the humanities and natural science. The subject matter of environmental history can be divided into three main components (Chakrabarti 2007). The first, nature itself and its change over time, includes the physical impact of humans on the Earth’s land, water, atmosphere, and biosphere. The second category, how humans use nature, includes the environmental conse­ quences of increasing population, more effective technol­ ogy, and changing patterns of production and consumption. Other key themes are the transition from nomadic hunter‐ gatherer communities to settled agriculture in the Neolithic Revolution, the effects of colonial expansion and settle­ ments, and the environmental and human consequences of the industrial and technological revolutions (Cronon 1995). Finally, environmental historians study how people think about nature – the way attitudes, beliefs, and values influence interaction with nature, especially in the form of myths, religion, and science.

2.2 ­Genesis of the Environmental Problem Environmental problems have bedeviled humanity since the first person discovered fire. The earliest humans appear to have inhabited a variety of locales within a tropical and

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2  Genesis of Environmental Problem Worldwide

semitropical belt stretching from Ethiopia to southern Africa about 1.9 million years ago. These first humans pro­ vided for themselves by a combination of gathering food and hunting animals. Humans, for the majority of their two million years’ existence, lived in this manner. The steady development and dispersion of these humans was largely due to an increase in brain size. This led to the ability to think abstractly, which was vital in the development of technology and ability to speak. This in turn led to coopera­ tion and more elaborate social organization. The ability to use and communicate and the developed technology to overcome the hostile environment ultimately led to the expansion of these first human settlements (Ponting 1991; Sander and Theodore 2008). By about 10 000 years ago humans had spread over every continent, living in small mobile groups. A minority of these groups lived in close harmony with the environment and did minimum damage. Evidence has been found where groups tried to conserve resources in an attempt to maintain subsistence for long periods of time. In some cases, restrictions on hunting a particular species at a time, a certain period of time of the year, or only in a cer­ tain area every few years helped to maintain population levels of certain animals (Goudie 1981). The Cree in Canada used a form of rotational hunting, only returning to an area after a considerable length of time, which allowed animal populations to recover. But the majority of these groups exploited the environment and animals inhabiting it. In Colorado, bison were often hunted by stampeding them off a cliff, ending up with about 200 corpses, most of which could not be used. On Hawaii, within a 1000 years of human settlement, 39 species of land birds had become extinct (Ponting 1991). In Australia, over the last 100 000 years, 86% of the large animals have become extinct. The large number of species lost was largely due to tendency for hunters to concentrate on one species to the exclusion of others. The main reason why these groups avoided further damage to nature was the fact that their numbers were so small that the pressure they exerted on the environment was limited. The major shift in human evolution took place between 10 000 and 12 000 years ago. Humans learned how to domesticate animals and cultivate plants and in so doing made a transition from nomadic hunter‐gatherer to rooted agriculturist. The global population at this time was about four million people, which was about the maximum that could readily be supported by a gathering and hunting way of life (Ponting 1991). The increasing difficulty in obtaining food is believed to be a major contributor to this sudden change. The farmer changed the landscape of the planet and was far more destructive than the hunter. While farming fostered the rise of cities and civilizations,

it also led to practices that denuded the land of its nutri­ ents and water‐holding capacity. Great civilizations flour­ ished and then disappeared as once‐fertile land, after generations of over‐farming and erosion, was transformed into barren wasteland. However, many years later different dimensions of the problem of environmental protection and its management have taken a serious turn in the present era. This is so because humans’ interaction with the natural environment is so extensive that the environment question has assumed proportions affecting all humanity. The dominant factors which are responsible to environmental deterioration throughout the world are rapid industrialization, urbaniza­ tion, population explosion (Figure  2.1), poverty, over‐ exploitation of resources, depletion of traditional resources of energy and raw materials, and research for new sources of energy and raw materials. As a result of this, there is air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, land pollution, and so on. The list is virtu­ ally endless. Moreover, the seriousness of environmental problem may be judged in terms of knowledge and skills required to understand a particular issues demanding ­solution. In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection constitutes an integral part of development process and it cannot be considered in isola­ tion. Peace, development, and environment are interde­ pendent and indivisible (Rio Declaration, UNESCO 1992). In the same continuation, Earth Summit of 1992 in Rio de Janerio, through Rio Declaration and agenda 21 has fur­ ther concretized the concept of environmental protection and sustainable development essential to survival of human race. Today we are confronted with a perpetuation of disparities between and within nations, a worsening of poverty among developing countries, hunger, ill health due to malnutrition, poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water and proper health care, illiteracy, and continuing deterioration of the ecosystem on which we depend for our well‐being. However, integration of environment and development concerns and greater attention to them will lead to the fulfillment of basic needs, improved living standards for all, better protected and managed ecosys­ tems, and a safer, more prosperous future.

2.3 ­Causes of Pollution and Environmental Degradation Causes of pollution and environmental degradation are of two types: 1) Natural causes 2) Man‐made causes

2.4  ­Industrialization and Urbanization in the United State

2.3.1  Natural Causes Drought, flood, tsunami, cyclone, hurricane, twister, tor­ rents, earthquake, molten lava of volcano, and epidemic are the main natural causes/factors which cause environ­ mental pollution. Since these are natural‐caused events and man has no control over them, they are known as natural causes.

2.3.2  Man-Made Causes There are four main man‐made causes: 1) Population growth 2) Poverty 3) Urbanization 4) Industrialization

2.3.3  Population Growth “The Earth is finite and world population is finite.” Every new born consumes plenty of natural and nonnatural products, which are also ultimately provided after utiliz­ ing natural resources. Thus, every birth increases the con­ sumption of natural resources. But the fact is a finite world can support only a finite population. In other words, natural resources shrink as people multiply. The current world population is 7.73 billion as of August 2019 according to the most recent United Nations estimates elaborated by Worldometers. The world’s population has grown almost sixfold in this century (Figure  2.1). India alone has about 17% population of the world land area. This rise in urban population is at a very high rate. It indi­ cates an increasing demand for fuel, food, pollution free clean water and air, space to live in, and healthy condi­ tions. Increasing population in urban areas has created the problem of land, air, and water pollution, and unsani­ tary conditions that all cumulatively adversely affecting the quality of life. Some big cities are rated as choked cit­ ies due to polluting industries around them. Continuous rise in urban population has enhanced the density of population in various areas which has also created vari­ ous social, physical, and psychological problems for peo­ ple. These high‐density populated areas have also resulted in deforestation and disappearance of vegetation cover, which is only 11% of the total area against 33% which is essential. Increasing population also results in poverty which is also a cause of pollution.

2.3.4  Poverty Poverty contributes equally to both  –  population growth and environmental pollution. Poverty has been defined as

the inability of an individual or household to attain a mini­ mum standard of living (World Commission on Health and Environment 1992). The poor people usually have low life expectancy, high infant mortality, and higher incidence of disablement. Unhygienic, unsanitary, and poor health con­ ditions are due to poverty. The impoverishment of the poor is accompanied by simultaneous and systematic erosion of the basic means of their subsistence, the environment, with its life‐supporting natural resources  –  land, forest, water, and air. Poverty reduces people’s capacity to use resources in a sustainable way, which also intensifies pres­ sure on the environment in underdeveloped and develop­ ing countries. It is now been aptly observed that the poor and poverty are linked to the environment (Our Common Future 1987).

2.3.5  Urbanization Rapid and unplanned urbanization has also contributed to environmental pollution and degradation of human environment. This is a direct result of rapid population growth and unending migration of the poor from small towns and villages to urban centers of developing coun­ tries. The burning of coal and wood in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. Environmental factors have been given too little consid­ eration in the thinking on urbanization in many cities of underdeveloped and developing countries. Yet they are extremely important factors to be considered with increasing urbanization. The levels of water and smog pollution are already high in many cities in underdevel­ oped and developing nations.

2.4 ­Industrialization and Urbanization in the United States Early in the nineteenth century, an awesome new force was gathering strength in Europe. The term “Industrial Revolution” was coined by the French as a metaphor of the affinity between technology and the great political revolution of modern times. Soon exported to the United States, the Industrial Revolution swept away any visions of America being an agrarian society. The steam engine, the railroad, the mechanical thresher, and hundreds of other ingenious artifacts that increased man’s ability to transform the natural world and put it to use would soon be puffing and clattering and roaring in all corners of the land. The new machines swiftly accelerated the con­ sumption of raw materials from the nation’s farms, for­ ests, and mines.

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2.4.1  Mini Case Studies Industrialization and urbanization, as a result of Industrial Revolution, began long before the late nine­ teenth and early twentieth centuries, but it accelerated greatly during this period because of technological inno­ vations, social changes, and a political system increas­ ingly apt to favor economic growth beyond any other concern. Before 1880, industrialization depended upon a prescribed division of labor – breaking most jobs up into smaller tasks, and assigning the same people to repeat one task indefinitely. After 1880, industrialization depended much more on mechanization – the replacement of peo­ ple with machines – to increase production and maximize profits. The development of the modern electrical grid, starting in the early 1880s, facilitated such technological advances. Henry Ford’s assembly line and the rise of mass production after the turn of the twentieth century only strengthened this effect. As a result, the total manufactur­ ing output of the United States was 28 times greater in 1929 than it was 1859. Adjust that number for the growth in population over the same period, and it still multiplied seven times over (Wright 1941). Cities in America date back to the beginning of the colo­ nial period, but the tendency for new industrial factories to be located in or near urban areas meant that cities grew much faster during the late nineteenth century than ever before. This trend was most apparent in large cities like New York, which expanded from approximately half a mil­ lion to around 3.5 million people between 1850 and 1900, and Philadelphia, which increased in size from slightly more than 100 000 inhabitants to more than 1.2 million people over the same period. During the last half of the late nineteenth century, Chicago proved to be the fastest grow­ ing city in the world. Overall, 15.3% of Americans lived in cities in 1850. By 1900, that percentage had increased to 39.7, and kept growing. The 1920 Census revealed that more Americans lived in cities than the countryside for the first time (Rees 2013). Not every city in the country developed as fast as the largest cities did. Important regional differences existed in urbanization because of differences in the nature of indus­ trial growth. The largest cities in the Northeast were manu­ facturing powerhouses that contained everything, from large factories building railroad locomotives to small shops producing textiles in people’s apartments. The Northeast also gave rise to smaller cities that concentrated on particu­ lar industries, like Rochester, New York, which specialized in men’s clothing, boots, and shoes. Following on a tradi­ tion of manufacturing from earlier in the century, New Bedford and Fall River, Massachusetts, increased in size because of their cotton textile factories. Other cities, like

Elizabeth, New Jersey, grew as by‐products of the expan­ sion of their larger neighbors. Chicago, the largest city in the Midwest, made its name processing natural resources from the Western frontier before those resources traveled eastward as finished prod­ ucts. Grain and lumber – two industries that had been cru­ cial for Chicago’s early growth  –  relied on Chicago for marketing and storage. With perfection of the refrigerated railroad car, meat processing became such an enormous industry that the vast majority of the meat that Americans ate was processed in the stockyards on that city’s south side. (That activity would disperse again, after the turn of the twentieth century, to other cities like Fort Worth and Kansas City.) Smaller cities in America’s industrial heart­ land would grow around other manufacturing pursuits like steel in Youngstown, and machine tools and cash registers in Dayton, Ohio (Warner 1995). The South had lagged behind the rest of the country since before the Civil War. As a result, many advocates for outside investment in this region expanded their activities after the war. They were somewhat successful. While the rate of industrialization (and therefore urbanization) picked up in the South during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it still has not fully caught up with the rest of the country. Birmingham, Alabama, for example, founded in 1871, flourished as a center for iron and steel manufacturing during the 1880s, when two railroads first linked that city to the region’s mineral resources (Misa 1999). The growth of cotton mills in the “upcountry” sec­ tion of the Carolinas began during the 1870s. After the turn of the twentieth century, this region became an important center of activity for the textile industry, in large part because of the available cheap, nonunion labor. What separates this period from earlier periods in urban and industrial history is that this was the first time in American history that cities had moved to the center of American life. Cities were places where most of the new factories were built. Waves of immigrants settled in cities because that is where the job openings in industrial facto­ ries were. Cities were also places where the effects of indus­ trialization, especially the increased inequality of wealth, were most visible. That means that the problems of cities became the problems of America.

2.4.2  The Electrical Grid and Improvements in Transportation One of the reasons that later industrialization progressed at such a greater pace than before was the improvement in power sources. The early Industrial Revolution depended upon steam engines and waterpower. The earli­ est engines were large and prohibitively expensive for all

2.4  ­Industrialization and Urbanization in the United State

but the largest firms. Water wheels were a possibility for smaller concerns, but they could not perform nearly as much work as later power sources could. Between 1869 and 1929, total available horsepower in the United States increased from 2.3 to 43 million units. In factories, the greatest part of that growth came from a huge increase in the use of electricity (Wright 1941). Although factories had grown larger and more efficient over the entire nineteenth century, they grew particularly large after 1880, as the power to run them became cheaper, cleaner, and more convenient to acquire. Starting in the late 1870s, Thomas Edison turned the attention of his extensive laboratory toward harnessing electricity to create affordable electric light. This achievement depended not only upon the creation of an efficient, inexpensive, incan­ descent light bulb but also on the creation of an electrical system to power it – everything from generators, to electri­ cal wires, to switches. Without a precedent for any of these things, the Edison Electric Company and many related subsidiaries (later gathered together under the umbrella of General Electric) had to manufacture just about everything to make the grid operate. “Since capital is timid, I will raise and supply it,” explained Edison to one of his investors. “The issue is factories or death!” (Jonnes 2004). Other com­ panies soon followed, because creating the central stations and the grid that eventually powered just about everything was so obviously lucrative. Symbolizing the importance of capital to Edison’s efforts, the first person to have his home successfully wired for electricity was the banker J. P. Morgan, in 1882. Despite set­ backs, his experience with electric light encouraged him to invest further in Edison’s efforts. Edison built the first cen­ tral generating station in New York City later that same year. The first area of Manhattan that Edison wired was a neighborhood filled with the homes and workplaces of those who operated the financial institutions he hoped to convince to invest in his enterprises, as well as two major newspapers that would publicize his achievements. By 1902, there were 2250 electrical generating stations in the United States. By 1920, that number grew to just short of 4000. Electricity spread from large cities to small cities and eventually out into rural areas by the 1920s (Cowan 1985; Cowan and Hersch 2017). This kind of growth required substantial improvement beyond Edison’s initial vision of an electrical system. The effects of a reliable electric grid on the cities where it first appeared were numerous, ranging from less coal smoke in the air to new sounds produced by various electrical crea­ tions  –  everything from streetcars to arc lights. Early arc lights were so bright people thought they could stop crime and vice by exposing the people who perpetrated these crimes. In smaller cities, obtaining electric light was a sign

of modernization, which implied future growth. Modern light in urban workplaces made office work easier by less­ ening strain on the eyes. As electric light companies moved in, the much‐hated urban gas companies lost a considera­ ble amount of economic power. Since people preferred electric light to gas, it became increasingly popular, as the grid expanded and the costs dropped. Electric light even changed the way people lived inside their houses. For example, children could now be trusted to put themselves to bed since there was no longer a fire risk from the open flames that were once needed to get to bed in the dark. Nevertheless, the growing electrical grid created new urban dangers. High‐voltage electrical wires strung above ground joined other wires from telephones, tele­ graphs  –  even stock tickers  –  posed a new urban “wire menace.” Many came down in bad weather. They were a hazard for electric company employees and pedestrians alike. “The overhead system is a standing menace to health and life,” reported one medical journal in 1888 (Freeberg 2014). In 1889, a fire caused by overheated electrical wires ignited a building full of dry goods and burned down much of downtown Boston. The most noteworthy effect of high‐quality, affordable lighting was the widespread practice of running factories 24 hours a day – which made them much more productive without any improvements in the technology of produc­ tion. Replacing putrid gas lamps also made the smell of factories better for the workmen who worked there. As the electrical grid became more reliable, electric motors gradu­ ally began to replace steam engines as the source of power in manufacturing. Using small electric motors as a source of power freed factories from having to be located near water sources to feed boilers and made it possible for them to be smaller too. Between 1880 and 1900, factories tended to adopt electric lighting but kept using earlier sources of power for their operation. Electric power for factory operations came quickly between 1900 and 1930. Both these developments (along with the large supply of immigrant workers) con­ tributed to the industrialization of cities. The electrifica­ tion of industrial facilities of all kinds proceeded quickly during the first two decades of the twentieth century. Businesses got wired for electricity much faster than cities because they could make the most use of what started out as a relatively expensive service. Because factories were concentrated in or near cities, it was a lot cheaper to wire them than it was to wire farms or even smaller cities away from electrical generating sta­ tions. Many of the new factories built during this later period appeared outside city limits, another new develop­ ment. Electrification allowed managers to automate jobs once done by hand labor, thereby eliminating inefficiency,

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gaining greater control over the production process, and boosting overall productivity. New devices like time clocks and even new modes of production like the assembly line also depended upon electric power. The advent of cheap and readily available electricity had a particularly important effect upon the physical layout of American cities during this period. Frank Sprague, an elec­ trical engineer who had once worked for Thomas Edison, designed the first electric streetcar system for Richmond, Virginia, in 1888. Such systems supplanted horse‐drawn carriages, making it possible for people to travel further and faster than they would have otherwise. This gave rise to a burst of suburbanization, a spate of new towns on the outskirts of American cities where wealthy and middle‐ class people could move to escape from the difficulties of modern urban life but still be close enough to enjoy many of its advantages. The new suburbanites often traveled to and from work via new electric streetcars. The electrical equipment manu­ facturer Westinghouse was one of the major manufactur­ ers of vehicles powered by an overhead wire. Electric streetcars had the advantage over horses of not leaving manure or of dying in the streets. Streetcars were more popular during weekends than during the week as work­ ing‐class people took advantage of low fares to explore new neighborhoods or to visit amusement parks, like Coney Island, generally built at the end of these lines. In the same way that employers and city planners depended upon streetcars to move people, manufacturers became more dependent upon railroads, after 1880, to move their finished products. Railroad track mileage grew greatly after the Civil War, connecting cities and leading to the growth of new factories in places that were convenient to the necessary resources to make marketable goods. Eventually, mass distribution was a prerequisite to benefit from all that increased productivity. For all these reasons, separating the causes and effects of industrialization and urbanization is practically impossible. Throughout the nineteenth century, factories usually had to be built near shipping ports or railroad stops because these were the easiest way to get factory products out to markets around the world. As more railroad tracks were built late in the nineteenth century, it became easier to locate factories outside of downtowns. Streetcars helped fill up the empty space downtown where factories would have gone. They made it easier to live further away from work and still commute to the heart of downtown, thereby making it possible for other kinds of businesses to locate there. One example would be the large urban department store, a phenomenon that predates 1880, but grew into its own after that date. Such stores like Wanamaker’s in Philadelphia or Marshall Field’s in Chicago bought the

products of industrialization in bulk and sold them at a dis­ counted price to workers who might have had trouble get­ ting access to them any other way.